History Cram

Important Royal Lines

2008-03-09T14:18:00.000-07:00

Important Royal Lines and Governments
FRANCE:
Valois Line:
Louis XI “Spider King” (1461-83)
Francis I (1515-1547): Concordat of Bologna; Hapsburg-Valois Wars
Bourbons:
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610): politique; Edict of Nantes; Duke of Sully
Louis XIII (1610-1643): Richelieu
Louis XIV (The “Sun King”) – (1643-1715): Mazarin, Colbert; absolutism, Versailles
Louis XV (1715-1774)
Louis XVI (1774-1792): beheaded during French Revolution
The Empire: Napoleon I (1804-1814) (Note: Consulate 1799-1804)
Restoration of Bourbons: Louis XVIII: Charter of 1814-constitutional monarchy
Orleans: Louis Philippe (1830-1848) " Bourgeois King")
Second Republic: 1848-1852 -- President Louis Napoleon
Second Empire: Napoleon III (1842-1870) (Note: 2nd Republic 1848-1852)
Third Republic: 1870-1940: Adolph Thiers, Leon Gambetta, Raymond Poincarè
Vichy Regime: 1940-1944 (during Nazi occupation of France in WWII)
Fourth Republic: 1944-1958; Charles de Gaulle
Fifth Republic: 1958-- Charles de Gaulle, Francois Mitterand

AUSTRIA
Habsburg Succession, 1493-1637: Holy Roman Empire
Maximilian I (1493-1519): 1st important Habsburg
Charles V (1519-1556): most powerful ruler in Europe; tried to prevent spread of reformation
Ferdinand I (1556-1584) – Austria (brother of Charles V)
Leopold I (1658-1705): thwarted Turkish invasion
Charles VI: Pragmatic Sanction, 1713
Maria Theresa (1740-1780): War of Austrian Succession
Joseph II (1765-1790): greatest of the "enlightened monarchs"

SPAIN
Ferdinand and Isabella (1492-1519): created modern unified Spain
Habsburgs:
Charles V (1519-1556) -- (controlled both Austrian and Spanish thrones
Phillip II (1556-1598) -- son of Charles V: Catholic crusade against England

ENGLAND (Great Britain after 1707)
Tudors
Henry VII (1489-1509): won "War of the Roses"; "new monarch"
Henry VIII (1509-1547): English Restoration
Mary I “Bloody Mary” (1553-1558) – (note: not Mary, “Queen of Scots”)
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Stuarts
James I (1603-1625): "divine right" theory
Charles I (1625-1642): beheaded
Interregnum: Commonwealth (1649-53); Protectorate (1653-58); Oliver Cromwell
Charles II (1660-1685): Restoration
James II (1685-1688): overthrown during "Glorious Revolution"
William and Mary (1688-1702): products of "Glorious Revolution"
Anne (1702-1714): 1707, royal title now King (or Queen) of Great Britain & Ireland
Hanoverians:
18th century: George I, George II, George III (lost American Revolution)
Robert Walpole (first prime minister in 1820s)
Queen Victoria (1837-1901)
19th century leaders: Earl Grey, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone
20th century leaders: Ramsay McDonald, Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, Margaret Thatcher

GERMANY
Hohenzollerns:
Frederick William – The “Great Elector”(1640-1688): foundation for Prussian state
Frederick I (Elector Frederick III) “The Ostentatious” (1688-1713)
Frederick William I (1713-1740) “The Soldiers’ King”
Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (1740-1786): "Enlightened Despotism"
Frederick William IV (1840-1861): "Humiliation of Olmutz"
William I (1861-1888) -- unified Germany under Bismarck; became Kaiser Wilhelm I
William II (1888-1918) -- World War I
Weimar Republic: 1919-1933 Gustave Streseman
Third Reich: 1933-1945 -- Adolf Hitler
German Federal Republic (West Germany): 1949-1990 Konrad Adenauer, Willy Brandt
German Democratic Republic (East Germany): 1949-1990
German Federal Republic (reunited Germany): 1990- Helmut Kohl
RUSSIA:
Ivan III “Ivan the Great” (1442-1505)
Ivan IV “Ivan the Terrible” (1533-1584)
Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Michael Romanov (1613-1645)
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
Catharine II, “Catharine the Great” (1762-96): Enlightened despotism?
Alexander I (1801-1825): Napoleonic wars, "Holy Alliance"
Nicholas I (1825-1855):
Alexander II (1855-1881): Emancipation Edict
Alexander III (1881-1894): "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Russification"
Nicholas II (1894-1917): WWI, Russian Revolution
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR): 1922-1991
Vladimir Lenin (1917-1924) , Joseph Stalin (1927-1953), Nikita Krushchev (1955-1964)
Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982), Mikahil Gorbachev (1985-1991)
Russian Federation: 1991- Boris Yeltsin (1991-2000)

ITALY: Victor Emmanuel I (1849-1878) -- King of Sardinia: unified Italy (Count Cavour)
Victor Emmanuel II (1900-1946): WWI, Mussolini

The Industrial Revolution

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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Arnold Toynbee, late 19th century historian, coined the phrase (he had a religious view of history).
è“Dual Revolution: liberalism of the French Revolution combined with the Industrial Revolution
A. After 1815, these economic and political revolutions fused in the form of capitalism, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism throughout Europe.
B. This “Dual Revolution” has continued to unfold well into the 20th century.
Roots of the Industrial Revolution
Commercial Revolution (1500-1700)
rise in capitalism (laissez-faire): bourgeoisie at the forefront
chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain area (BEIC, DEIC)
joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for common purpose (forerunner of
modern corporation
stock markets: e.g., Bourse in Germany
mercantilism: economic self-sufficiency; “bullionism”
overseas colonization: esp. Atlantic economy
scientific revolution: new inventions and experimentation in better agricultural practices
rise in population: between 1750 & 1850 pop. nearly doubled to 266 million
Thomas Malthus: late 18th century economist who believed food supply could not keep up
with population growth (pop. growth exponential; food production increased geometrically)
England
è Reasons favorable to England: influence of Calvinism, good location of rivers, coal & iron,
strong Atlantic economy & navy, abundance of cheap laborers (due to enclosure?),
agricultural revolution, large amount of capital (e.g. Bank of England), inventive and
technologically skilled managers, stable gov’t supportive of industry,
Bubble Act repealed: again allowed for joint-stock companies
Lowes Act: allowed for limited liability
repeal of Navigation Act and Corn Laws
Inventions (due to growing worldwide demand for textiles)
1733, John Kay: flying shuttle
1764, James Hargreaves: spinning jenny
1769, Richard Arkwright: water frame--improved thread spinning.
1779, Samuel Crompton combines spinning-jenny & water frame into the mule.
1780s, Arkwright: steam engine to power looms; factory production of textiles.
1784, Edmund Cartwright (1753-1823) invents loom powered by horses, water, or steam.
1793, Eli Whitney, cotton gin
impact of new technology in textiles: cheaper, faster, & more profitable
coal
Thomas Savory,1698 & Thomas Newcomen,1705: steam pump rids mines of water seepage
1769, James Watt (1736-1819) invented and patented the first efficient steam engine.
è Industrial Revolution’s most fundamental advance in technology
heavy industry: manufacture of machinery and materials used in production
Henry Cort, in 1780s, developed puddling furnace: refined pig iron

Transportation Revolution:
Duke of Bridgewater: developed canal system (with use of steam power)
John McAdam (1756-1836): hard-surfaced roads
1785, James Rumsey (1743-1792): first steamship, went up the Potomac River
1807, Robert Fulton, Clermont: first useful steamship; went up the Hudson River
Railroad’s impact:
revolutionized travel overland; fast, cheap, and in any terrain
Growing regional and national market
1825, George Stephenson made railway locomotive commercially successful.
Britain’s economy by 1850:
1. Produced 2/3 of world’s coal.
2. Produced more than ½ of world’s iron.
3. Produced more than ½ of world’s cotton cloth.
4. GNP rose between 1801 and 1850 350%
· 100% growth between 1780 and 1800.
· Population increased from 9 million in 1780 to almost 21 million in 1851.
5. Per capita income increased almost 100% between 1801 and 1851.

Continental Europe industrializes after 1815
è Napoleonic Wars retarded growth of Continental economy until after 1815
borrowing (or stealing) of British technology
Industrialization differed in each country after 1815
Belgium, Holland, France, & U.S. began in 2nd decade of 19th century.
Samuel Slater: “father of the factory system” in the U.S.
Germany, Austria, and Italy in mid-19th century.
Germany eclipsed Britain by 1890s
Eastern Europe and Russia at end of 19th century.
Parts of Asia and Africa well into 20th century; it still continues.
Strong sovereign central governments and banking systems to promote native industry
Credit Mobilier in France: financed major industrial projects
Tariff policies used to protect native industries: Zollverein in Germany
Significance: increased production and availability of manufactured goods.

Social Implications from Industrial Revolution:
è New social order replaced traditional stratification (clergy, nobility and masses)
rise of the middle-class: bourgeoisie
new wage-earning class of factory workers
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895): lashed out at middle-class abuse of wage-earners
Luddites: attacked factories, broke machinery; believed factories taking their jobs
After 1850, industrial revolution more favorable to workers than negative.
struggle between labor and capital
union movement: workers began to organize to improve wages & working conditions Combination Acts (1799): Parliament fearful of radicalism of French Revolution
Made unions illegal; largely ignored by workers; repealed in 1824
Robert Owen (1771-1858): in 1834, Grand National Consolidated Trades Union
Movement failed; after 1851 unions moving toward craft unions
Chartists: sought political democracy for all men
Great Charter: put demands before Parliament
Failed initially but all demands eventually met by early 20th c.
è Union action combined with general prosperity and a developing social conscience, to
improve working conditions, wages, and hours first of skilled labor, and later of unskilled labor.

changes in working conditions
factory work: more discipline required; increased loss of personal freedom
exploitation of children
Factory Act of 1833: limited hours per day; prohibited children under age 9
Mines Act of 1842: prohibited all children under age 10 from working underground
è Urbanization of the world: Industrial Revolution’s most important sociological effect
è Working class injustices, gender exploitation and standard-of-living issues became the
19th century’s great social and political dilemmas
family structure: productive work taken out of the home to the factory
gender issues: women’s work now seen as less valuable; increasingly associated with
domestic duties.
Men separated from wives and children: leaving home to go work or working in
different factory
David Ricardo: “iron law” of wages -- argued that the high pressure of population would
cause wages to always be low.

Industrial Revolution may have prevented large-scale human tragedy like in Ireland
Irish Potato Famine: 1845-46, 1848, 1851
Historical debate on Industrial Revolution:
Capitalists view it as a positive step toward fulfilling human wants and needs
Socialists and communists view it as the further exploitation of the have-nots by the haves

Napoleonic Era: 1799-1815

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NAPOLEONIC ERA (1799-1815) – “Age of Voltaire”
Consulate Period: 1799-1804 (Enlightened Reform)
èNapoleon Bonaparte, First Consul: be viewed as the last of the “Enlightened Despots”
plebiscite: general referendum overwhelmingly voted for Napoleon
Code Napoleon:: legal unity provided first clear and complete codification of French law:
code of civil procedure, criminal procedure, commercial code, and penal code.
Equality before the law
“Careers Open to talent”: promotions in gov’t service based on merit
Drawbacks: denied women equal status, denied true political liberty (due to absolutism), nepotism by placing family members as heads of conquered regions
Religion
Concordat of 1801: Napoleon ended the rift between the church and the state
Papacy renouncing claims over church property seized during the Revolution;
France allowed to nominate or depose bishops.
In return, priests who had resisted the Civil Constitutions of the Clergy would
replace those who had sworn an oath to the state
Extended legal toleration to Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and atheists who all received
same civil rights
Bank of France: served interests of the state and financial oligarchy
educational reform: public education under state control
Creation of new imperial nobility to reward most talented generals & officials
police state: Led by Joseph Fouchè, a former Hèbertist
Duke of Enghien (related to Bourbons) arrested and shot though innocent
Brittany and the Vendèe dealt with ruthlessly
War of the Second Coalition: 1798-1801
Battle of the Nile
Treaty of Lunèville (1801)
Resulted in Austria’s loss of her Italian possessions.
German territory on west bank of the Rhine incorporated into France
Britain isolated
Peace Interim:
Treaty of Amiens (w/ Britain) 1802
Britain returned some French islands; France kept conquered European territories
Britain dismayed treaty didn’t yield commercial benefit; broke treaty and war renewed
French forces defeated in Haiti by disease and Toissant L’Overture; Louisiana Territory sold

Empire Period, 1804-1814
Napoleon crowned Emperor
Grand Empire: consisted of an enlarged France and satellite kingdoms
War of the Third Coalition: (1805-1807)
Napoleon planned to invade Great Britain
Alexander I (Russia): joined Austria and Great Britain
La Harpe: Swiss tutor and pro-French revolution who educated Alexander
Battle of Trafalgar (1805), Horatio Nelson: Britain destroyed French navy
Established supremacy of British navy for over a century
Napoleon forced to cancel invasion of Britain
Battle of Austerliz (Dec. 1805): Napoleon smashed Austrian army and gained more territory
Third Coalition collapsed
Battle of Jena: Napoleon defeated Prussia in 1806
Treaty of Tilsit (1807): symbolized height of Napoleon’s success
Face to face negotiations between France & Russia on Niemen River while Prussia
waited eagerly
Provisions:
Prussia lost half its population.
Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of western and central Europe.
Russia also agreed to accept Napoleon’s Continental System.
Germany in 1806
è Consolidation of 300 states into 39
Confederation of the Rhine: 15 German states minus Prussia, Austria, and Saxony
Napoleon became “Protector” of the Confederation
Holy Roman Empire abolished
Feudalism abolished

è Continental System: aimed to isolate Britain and promote Napoleon’s mastery over Europe
Berlin Decree, 1806: British ships not allowed in European ports
“order in council”, 1806: Britain proclaimed any ship going to Europe had to stop there first
Milan Decree, 1807: Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized
when it entered the Continent.
These edicts eventually led to U.S. declaring war on Great Britain: War of 1812
Continental System a major failure: failed to hurt Britain; European countries grew tired of it
Napoleon’s empire by 1810: included
Confederation of the Rhine
Joseph Bonaparte: King of Spain
Jerome Bonaparte: King of Westphalia
Caroline Bonaparte: Queen of Naples
Duchy of Warsaw
Kingdom of Italy
(Independent but allied states of Austria, Prussia and Russia)
The Peninsular War (1808-1814) in Spain: first great revolt against Napoleon’s power
guerrilla war against France aided by Britain led by Duke of Wellington
War of Liberation (1809): Austria declared war against France but lost more territory
Russian Campaign (1812):
Battle of Borodino (1812): ended in draw but Napoleon overextended himself
French troops invaded all the way to Moscow but eventually driven back and destroyed
War of the Fourth Coalition (1813-1814): Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia
Battle of Leipzig (“Battle of Nations”), Oct. 1813 – hitherto, largest battle in world history
Most of Napoleon’s Grand Army destroyed
Frankfurt Proposals: Austrian minister Metternich demanded France return to historic
borders; Napoleon refused
Quadruple Alliance: created against France; lasted 20 years
Napoleon abdicates April, 1814; Bourbons restored to throne
King Louis XVIII creates Charter of 1814: constitutional monarchy; bicameral legislature
“first” Treaty of Paris (1814)
France surrendered all lands gained since 1792
Allies imposed no indemnity or reparations (after Louis refused to do so)
è Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
Klemens Von Metternich: dominant figure at the Congress; conservative
Alexander I
Principles of Settlement: Legitimacy, Compensation, Balance of Power
“Hundred Days” (March 20-June 22, 1815): Napoleon returns from exile and organizes new army
Capitalized on stalled talks at Congress of Vienna
Battle of Waterloo, June 1815: Napoleon defeated by Duke of Wellington
Napoleon exiled to St. Helena
“2nd” Treaty of Paris: dealt more harshly w/ France; large indemnity, some minor territories

The French Revolution

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FRENCH REVOLUTION
long-term causes
Enlightenment ideas led to rising expectations among French citizens
classical liberalism: (see handout)
French physiocrats: advocated reform of the agrarian order; opposed to mercantilism
American Revolution intrigued many with ideal of liberty and equality
Social Stratification
First Estate: clergy, Gallican Church (less than 1% of population)
Second Estate: nobility (2-4% of population)
Third Estate: rest of population (paid both tithes to church and taille to gov’t)
peasantry: owned 40% of land in France; corvée—forced labor several days
per year for nobles
Lettre de cachet: gov’t could imprison anyone without trial or jury
bourgeoisie: upper middle class; well-to-do but resented 1st and 2nd Estates had
all the power and privilege
è Historical interpretations of the French Revolution:
Traditional view: clash between the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy
Recent scholarship: bourgeoisie and aristocracy on parallel ladders leading to clash
with monarchy
short-term cause: bankruptcy of the gov’t and enormous debt
King Louis XVI (1774-1792), financial mismanagement; ½ of budget went to pay interest
Jacques Necker: finance minister who tried to raise taxes; privileged classes refused
Parlement of Paris blocked tax increases
cahiers de doleance: Each estate expected to compile list of suggestions and
grievances and present them to the king during upcoming Estates General
elections held during worst depression of 18th century
Estates General, May 1789: 1st time meeting since 1614
Parlement of Paris ruled voting would be done by estate (3 total votes)
3rd Estate furious that vote would not be proportional to population
Abbè Sièyès: What is the Third Estate? Answer: everything!
Rousseau’s Social Contract: the "general will" should prevail (3rd Estate)
3rd Estate prevailed in voting method argument after 6 weeks
èNational Assembly, 1789-1791 (also called the Constituent Assembly) – “Age of Montesquieu”
Tennis Court Oath:
June 17, 3rd Estate declared itself the true National Assembly of France
King locked them out of meeting place
Oath: swore not to disband until they had given France a constitution
bourgeoisie dominated the National Assembly
Storming of the Bastille – July 14, 1789
“Parisian” revolution due to food shortages, soaring bread prices, unemployment, and
fear of military repression
Stormed Bastille in search of gunpowder and weapons
Significance: inadvertently saved the National Assembly from king’s repression
Great Fear of 1789: wave of violence and hysteria in countryside against propertied class
Peasants (with help of middle class) destroyed records of feudal obligations
August 4, National Assembly abolished feudalism (manorialism); peaceful revolution
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens: became constitutional blueprint for France
Provisions: due process of law, sovereignty of the people, equality, freedom of
expression & religion, tax only by common consent, separate gov’t branches
“citizen”: included everyone, regardless of class
Women did not share equally in rights
Olympe de Gouges: The Rights of Woman, 1791: demanded equal rights and
economic and educational opportunities
Mary Wollstonecraft: Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792: supported Gouges
Madame de Stael: ran a salon and wrote books deploring subordination of women
October 5, 1789: as part of bread riot, women march to Versailles; accelerate the revolution
Incited by Jean Paul Marat
Forced king and family to move to Tuleries in Paris: “The Baker, the Baker’s wife,
and the baker’s little boy”
Constitution
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy: created national church with 83 bishops and
diocese; biggest blunder of the National Assembly
83 Departments: country politically divided into districts
constitutional monarchy established
Flight to Varennes: king fled from Tuleries hoping to escape and rally support; failed
Assignats: new paper currency; former church lands guaranteed value of currency
International Reaction
Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Reflections on the Revolution in France
Conservative: opposed revolution as mob rule
Thomas Paine: Rights of Man: responded to Burke’s indictment by defending
the Enlightenment principles of the revolution

èLegislative Assembly, 1791-1792
Jacobins: political club that dominated Legislative Assembly
Girondins: radical Jacobins who were advanced party of the revolution and brought
he country to war
Declaration of Pillnitz, August, 1791: issued by Prussia and Austria in August, 1791
Èmigrès: French nobles who fled France sought support of foreign countries.
Emperor Leopold declared he would restore gov’t of France if other powers
joined him; really a bluff
French revolutionaries took Leopold at his word and prepared for war.
War of the First Coalition
Legislative Assembly declared war in April, 1792
Austrian armies defeated French armies but divisions over eastern Europe
saved France
Brunswick Manifesto: Prussia & Austria would destroy Paris if royal family harmed
Revolutionary sentiment led by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat
King stormed at Tuleries, Swiss Guards killed; king taken prisoner
Marked beginning of “2nd French Revolution”

Paris Commune: Revolutionary municipal gov’t set up in Paris, which usurped powers of the
Legislative Assembly
Led by Georges-Jacques Danton
Legislative Assembly suspended 1791 constitution
September Massacres (led by Paris Commune)
Rumors of aristocratic and clerical conspiracy with foreign invaders led to
massacre of over 1,000 priests, bourgeoisie, and aristocrats

èNational Convention, 1792-1795 – “Age of Rousseau”
France proclaimed a republic, September 17, 1792
Equality, Liberty, Fraternity:
Two factions emerged:
The Mountain: radical republicans; urban class (Danton, Robespierre, Marat)
Girondins: more moderate faction; represented countryside
sans-culottes (“without breeches”): (not part of National Convention)
working-class; extreme radical
kept revolution moving forward: stormed Bastille, march to Versailles, driving king
from Tuleries, September Massacres
Battle of Valmy, Sept. 20, 1792: Prussian invasion stopped; moral victory for Convention
Battle of Jemappes: first major victory for France; took Austrian Netherlands
But war turned against France by Spring 1793
Louis XVI beheaded January, 1793
Jacques Roux: demanded radical political action to guarantee bread
Mountain ousts Girondins, May 1793: urged to do so by sans-culottes
Enragès, radical working-class group (even more than sans-culottes) seized and
arrested Mountain members in the Convention
Charlotte Corday, member of Girondins, kills Marat
Committee of Public Safety, formed in Summer 1793 as emergency gov’t
Maximilien Robespierre
Louis Saint-Just (1767-1794): also a leader of Committee
Law of Maximum: planned economy to respond to food shortages and other
economic problems
Foreshadowed socialism
slavery abolished in French West Indies
Reign of Terror (1793-94): most notorious event of French Revolution
Law of Suspects: Created Revolutionary Tribunals at the local level to hear cases of accused enemies brought to “justice”
guillotine: created as an instrument of mercy.
Queen Marie Antoinette beheaded
Girondins executed in September
Vendèe: region in western France that opposed revolution; many executed
Jacques Hèbert, “angry men”—Hèbertistes, executed
Danton and followers executed in 1794
Cult of the Supreme Being: deistic naturalist religion; Catholics now opposed

Thermidorian Reaction (1794): ended “Reign of Terror”
Robespierre executed, July 1794
Constituted significant political swing to the right (conservative)
Girondins readmitted
Economic controls lifted: ended control of sans-culottes
Revolutionary Calendar: new non-Christian calendar
èThe Directory: 1795-1799
Constitution of 1795 restored some order but gov’t very ineffective
Upper bourgeoisie in control but constituted very narrow social base of country
Conspiracy of Equals led by “Gracchus” Babeuf
sans-culottes faction that sought to overthrow gov’t and abolish property
precursor to communism
Easily suppressed by Directory and Babeuf executed
Elections in 1797 a victory for royalists but annulled by gov’t
Dictatorship favorable to revolution establish: “Post-Fructidorian Terror”
Victory over First Coalition
Napoleon Bonaparte victorious of Austrian army
Battle of the Pyramids: Napoleon victorious over British army in Egypt
Battle of the Nile: devastating defeat of Napoleon by British; Napoleon returns to lead France
Coup d’Ètat Brumaire, November 1799: Napoleon invited by Abbe Sieyes to lead
Directory overthrown and Napoleon becomes First Consul

18th Century Society

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CHANGING SOCIETY IN THE 18TH CENTURY
marriage; divorce
birth control & pre-marital sex
illegitimacy
work away from home
child rearing
foundling hospitals
infanticide
“Spare the rod and spoil the child”
humanitarianism
formal education
nutrition
Health
small-pox vaccine: Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
hospital reform
Religious reform
Regulation of local religion state governments and church hierarchy
Pietism in Germany
Methodism, John Wesley in England

American Revolution
classical liberalism ideals:
Declaration of Independence: impact of Locke and the Enlightenment
French aid: important in defeating British army
Became a world war:
Spain joined France hoping to drive Britain from Gibraltar
Dutch joined in against Britain; sought trade with U.S.
League of Armed Neutrality: Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Ottoman Empire
Formed to protect their commerce from British blockade
è Impact on Europe:
Inspired liberals to seek republicanism (esp. French Revolution)
War overburdened French treasury and was a direct cause of the French Revolution

18th Century Expansion

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EXPANSION IN THE 18TH CENTURY
economic and demographic changes
1700, 80% of western Europeans were farmers; higher % in eastern Europe
Most people lived in poverty
dramatic population growth until 1650; slows down until 1750
open-field system: greatest accomplishment of Medieval agriculture
village agriculture; 1/3 to ½ of fields lay fallow
serfs in eastern Europe were worst off; many sold with lands (like slavery)
è Agricultural Revolution: major milestone in human civilization
impact of the scientific revolution’s experimental method was great
crop rotation most important feature
enclosure movement: end to common lands and open-field system
agriculturalists consolidated lands and closed them off
game laws in England prohibited peasants from hunting game
caused considerable friction in the countryside in 17th and 18th centuries
traditional view of enclosure (Marx): poor people driven off the land
recent scholarship: negative impact of enclosure has been exaggerated
As much as 50% of lands enclosed already by 1750 (much by mutual consent)
1700: ratio of landless farmer to landowner = 2:1; not much greater in 1800
Low Countries: took the lead
increased population meant more food had to be produced
Cornelius Vermuyden: important in drainage of swamp lands into useful farm land
Huge impact on southern England
England
Viscount Charles Townsend (1674-1738): improved soil by crop rotation (turnips)
Drained extensively, manured heavily, regular crop rotation w/o fallowing
Jethro Tull (1674-1741): seed drill; more efficient than scattering seeds by hand
selective breeding of ordinary livestock: created larger animals
Population Explosion after 1750
limits to population growth before 1700: famine, disease, war
reasons for population growth: disappearance of plague, improved sanitation, improved
transportation for food distribution (canal and roadbuilding in western Europe), increased food supply (esp. potato),

è Cottage Industry: first and foremost a family enterprise (also called “putting-out” system)
occurred during Agricultural Revolution
Putting-out system: city manufacturers took advantage of cheaper labor in the countryside
increased rural population eager to supplement agricultural income.
began to challenge urban craft industry
Inventions
1733, John Kay: flying shuttle
1764, James Hargreaves: spinning jenny
1769, Richard Arkwright: water frame, which improved thread spinning.
1780s, Arkwright: steam engine to power looms; factory production of textiles.
1793, Eli Whitney, cotton gin

Atlantic Economy in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Characteristics
· World trade became fundamental
· Spain and Portugal revitalized their empires and began drawing more wealth from renewed development.
· Netherlands, Great Britain, and France benefited most; Great Britain the leading maritime power.
Britain’s commercial leadership based on mercantilism
Navigation Laws: aimed to reduce Dutch trade in Atlantic region (1st in 1651, Cromwell)
Mercantilism: self-sufficiency; colonies exist solely for benefit of mother country
South Sea Bubble: responsible for exploiting the asiento other commercial privileges won
from Spain after Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Took over large portion of public debt by receiving gov’t bonds in return for shares of
its stock.
Stock values soared but the “bubble” burst in 1720
England recovered better than France who had created a Mississippi Bubble for
New Orleans commerce.
“Bubble Act”: forbade joint-stock companies, except those chartered by gov’t
3 Anglo-Dutch wars: hurt Dutch shipping and commerce
Netherlands’ “golden age: during 1st half of 16th century
Colonial Wars: Britain vs France
War of Spanish Succession (Queen Anne’s War) (1701-1713)
Treaty of Utrecht (1713):
Britain received asiento (slave trade) from Spain
Britain allowed to send 1 ship of merchandise annually into Panama.
War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739): started over Spanish anger over British abuse of asiento.
expanded into War of Austrian Succession the following year
War of Austrian Succession (King George’s War) (1740-1748)
Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748): restored status quo prior to war
Seven Years War (French and Indian War) (1754-1763)
William Pitt the Elder: successfully led war effort from Parliament
Wolfe defeated Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham (Battle of Quebec)
Treaty of Paris (1763): Britain gained all French territory in North America

N. American colonies: most valuable to Britain – tobacco, fish, lumber, grain
huge market for British goods: 2.5 million people by 1775
slavery
Spain’s Latin American colonies: helped revitalize Spanish empire in 18th c.
gold and silver mining recovered
significant trade with mother country
Creoles elite came to rival top Spanish authorities (about 10% of population)
Mestizos increased to about 20% of population
black slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico
Portuguese Brazil: about 50% of population African by early 19th c.
more successful in blending races than in Spanish colonies or United States

Enlightened Despotism

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ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM – some monarchs adopted certain Enlightenment ideas
è Overview: In sum, reforms were made but very modest improvements occurred and life of the peasantry remained hard in the 18th century.
· Progressive reforms included toleration of religious minorities, simplified legal codes, and promotion of practical education.
· Yet, Absolutists more vigorously sought reforms to strengthen the state and allow them to compete militarily with their neighbors.
· In essence, continued state building of their predecessors.
è “Frederick the Great” (Frederick II: 1740-1786) of Prussia
· At war for first half of his reign
· War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – (King George’s War – 1744-1748)
Prussia, France, Bavaria & Spain vs. Austria and Russia
Took Silesia from Austria; Prussia now most powerful German state: “Great Power”
Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748): legitimized Frederick’s conquest.
· Seven Years War (1756-1763) – (French and Indian War)
Prussia alone in fighting France, Russia & Austria (outnumbered 15-1)
“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756: Britain allied with Prussia (but of little value)
Peter III of Russia let Prussia off the hook at a critical moment
Treaty of Paris (1763): Prussia retained Silesia; remained a “Great Power”
· Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign – ruler was the “first servant of the state”
· Religious freedom, education in schools and universities, codified laws, promoted industry and agriculture, encouraged immigration
· Social structure remained heavily stratified: serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility, Junkers became heart of military; difficult upward mobility for middle class leadership
èCatherine II of Russia (1762-1798) “Catherine the Great” – 1 of greatest rulers in Euro history
· Least “enlightened” of the Enlightened Despots
· westernization: architecture, sculpture, music--supported philosophes
· reforms: reduced torture, limited religious toleration, some education improvement, increased
local control
· Pugachev Rebellion (1773): largest peasant uprising in Russian history;
· Catherine gained support from nobility by granting greater control over serfs: high point for nobles--low point for serfs
· territorial expansion
· Annexed Polish territory: 3 partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795
· Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea (controlled by Tartars)
· Began conquest of Caucasus
· In 17th century, effectiveness of Russian monarchs limited by vast Russian territories
Austria
· Maria Theresa (1740-1780): Wars of 1740s led to internal consolidation
· Reduced serfdom (more than any other e. European ruler except her son)
èJoseph II (1765-1790) – greatest of the Enlightened despots (“greatest good for greatest #”)
· Abolished serfdom in 1781, freedom of press, freedom of religion & civic rights, more equitable justice system, made German official language (to assimilate minorities), increased control over Catholic education, expanded state schools, left empire in economic and political turmoil: Leopold I rescind many laws (e.g., serfdom)
France: rise of aristocratic power and liberalism resulted in end of absolutism
Louis XV (1715-1774):
Madame de Pompadour: most famous mistress of the 18th c.
charmed the king and gained decision-making power
Parlement of Paris (partial to nobles) blocked Louis’ absolutist ambitions
Renè de Maupeou: dissolved Parlement of Paris
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
reinstated Parlement of Paris (due to strong public opinion) & dismissed Maupeau
struggle with aristocracy and bourgeoisie resulted in the French Revolution.

The Enlightenment

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THE ENLIGHTENMENT
è secular world view: first time in human history; marked end of age of religion
natural science and reason
deism: God created universe and then stepped back and left it running (like a clock)
Grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law
Thomas Paine, Age of Reason: advocates deism
progress: improve society through natural laws
Rationalists: advocated perfectibility of society
Descartes
Baruch Spinoza (1632-77): equated God and nature; impersonal mechanical universe; denied
free will
Empiricists: emphasized observation as basis for epistemology
Francis Bacon – inductive method
è John Locke (1632-1704)
Two Treatises on Civil Government: justified supremacy of Parliament; natural rights
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): tabula rasa (“blank slate”)
considered one of most important Enlightenment works
all human knowledge is the result of sensory experience: thus, human progress
is in the hands of society—education!

è classical liberalism: (see handout)
Philosophes: those who made Enlightenment ideas available to a wider audience
Edward Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – attacked Christianity
Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757): made scientific revolution accessible to many people
Marquis di Beccaria: sought to humanize the criminal law
Marquis de Condorcet: human progress would eventually lead to its perfection
è The Three Great French Philosophes
Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778): Candide
Baron de Montesqueiu (1689-1755): Spirit of the Laws (1748): checks and balances
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Social Contract (1762): general will
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Encyclopedia: greatest and most representative intellectual achievements
of the philosophes
Economic theory
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) – “physiocrats”: opposed to mercantilist economic theory
advocated reform of the agrarian order.
Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations (1776): The “Bible” of capitalism; laissez faire
Gender theory: women played important role in organizing salons
Salons of Madame de Geoffren and Louise de Warens
Mary Wollstonecraft
Later Enlightenment:
Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789): humans were machines governed by outside forces
freewill, God, and immortality of soul were foolish myths
severe blow to unity of the Enlightenment
David Hume (1711-76): emphasized limitations of human reasoning; human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions; later became dogmatic skeptic that undermined Enlightenment
Rousseau believed rationalism and civilization was destroying rather than liberating the
individual; emphasized nature, passion—influenced early Romantic movement
Immanuel Kant (1724-1794): Separated science and morality into separate branches of
knowledge. Science could describe natural phenomena of material world but could not provide a guide for morality

è Significance of the Enlightenment: leads to
· Enlightened despotism
· American and French Revolutions (as a result of classical liberalism)
· educational reform
· laissez faire capitalism (in 19th century, esp. U.S.)

Theistic opposition to the Enlightenment
German pietism: argued need for spiritual conversion and religious experience
Methodism: taught need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate
reality of the conversion
John Wesley (1703-91):
Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield in America (1st Great Awakening)
Jansenism (Catholic sect) in France argued against idea of an uninvolved or impersonal God

The Scientific Revolution

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SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Regiomontanus and Nicholas of Cusa: laid mathematical framework for Copernicus and others
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
heliocentric view (instead of geocentric view)
Church officials force Copernicus to retract his views
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) – mass of scientific data from observations used by Kepler & others
Johann Kepler (1571-1630) – 3 laws of planetary motion
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) – telescope, proves Copernicus’s heliocentric theory
Medicine: Scientists began challenging Greco-Roman medical authority (esp. Galen-2nd c. AD)
Vesalius The Structure of the Human Body (1543): renewed and modernized study of anatomy
William Harvey (1578-1657): On the Movement of the Heart and Blood (1628)-- blood circulation
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
empiricism: “renounce notions and form acquaintance with things”
inductive method: conclusion is reached after much observation
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
deductive method: conclusion is reached by logic
“I think, therefore I am” (cognito ergo sum)
Cartesian dualism: divided all existence into the spiritual and the material
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1747): Principia
universal gravitation
Royal Society founded in 1662 to promote scientific research; other academies founded in Europe
è Significance of scientific revolution: leads to
· Enlightenment
· Agricultural Revolution
· Improvement in exploration

Term 1 Review

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Test # 1 Terms Review

Later Middle Ages:
Black Death (1347): loss of 1/3 of European population (mostly in cities)
Causes: bubonic plague carried by fleas on Asian black rats; poor sanitation, overcrowded
homes, poor health, poor hygiene, poor housing
Results: Severe impact on European economy; in some areas workers enjoyed higher wages;
best of clergy died (staying behind to help the sick); Jews blamed; serfdom ended in many areas; first enclosure of fields in Britain
Population did not reach pre-plague level until the mid-16th century.
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): cause—English lays claim to some French land
Joan of Arc: led French army to victory at Orleans during crucial stage of the war
Results: France kicks England out; creation of modern nation states begin (“New Monarchs”)
Peasant Revolts
Causes: taxation during Hundred Years’ War, desire for higher wages, hostility toward
aristocracy, and higher expectations among peasantry.
English Peasant Revolt (1381):
Jacquerie in France (late 14th-early 15th c.)
Results: revolts crushed; end of serfdom in England c. 1550

John Wyclif (1320-1384): church should only follow Scripture; English
translation of Bible; his later followers were Lollards
John Huss (1369-1415): ideas similar to Wyclif; nationalist party in Czech (Bohemia)
Hussites: followers of Huss who staged large rebellions in 14th century.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): 7 successive popes resided at Avignon, France
Damaged papal prestige (esp. in England & Germany); Rome’s economy damaged
Great Schism (c. 1377-1417): Further conflict led to election of two popes—one in Rome,
one in France; further hurt prestige of church
Conciliar Movement (1409-1418): ended schism; failed as movement to put power in a
church council; pope’s power still supreme

scholasticism (St. Thomas Aquinas) – Medieval Philosophy
Attempted to reconcile faith and reason by using logic to support Christian doctrine
Worked to reconcile Aristotle’s ideas with Christianity

RENAISSANCE
Renaissance = re-birth of classical culture
+ the birth of a NEW spirit of self awareness
+ sense of relief after a disastrous 14th century
+ sense of self assertion & celebration of the human spirit / potential
+ Artistic achievement
Brunelleschi - combined gothic and classical architecture
- Florence Cathedral
Donatello: created a flowing sense of reality, especially in the robes and clothes of his subjects
-Judith Slaying Holofernes (1455), demonstrated perspective and is free standing
Massaccio: used light and shading to create perspective, increased the display of human emotion (the human experience became the subject of the painting)
- The Expulsion of Adam and Eve (1425)
- The Holy Trinity (1425)
Botticelli: famous for classical themes and bright colors
- The Birth of Venus (1478)
- Spring (1478)
Leonardo da Vinci: Great master famous for observation of detail and use of perspective
- The Last Supper (1495-98)
- La Giocada (Mona Lisa)
Michelangelo
- Pieta: sculpture of Madonna, new representation
- David: union of classical sculpture and Renaissance style
- Sistine Chapel: overwhelming accomplishment, portrays a narrative of the Christian
creation myth
- Saint Peter's Basilica: Begun by Bramante, finished by Michelangelo
Republic of Florence (Included Republic of Genoa) – Medici family
Cosimo De’Medici (1389-1464): allied with other powerful families of Florence and became unofficial ruler of the republic
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in Florence 1494-98; (predicted French
invasion due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states); burned at the stake
Humanism: Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature; reaction to an intellectual world that was centered on the church doctrine
- Secular outlook, NOT NECESSARILY anti-religious
- Emphasis on human achievement
- Studied and taught “humanities” – liberal arts
- Applied their ideas to spiritual / secular world
- Petarch: “father of Humanism” – Cicero

- Byzantine scholars (fleeing Muslim expansion) were influential
- Developed new standards for studying classical texts and new educational standards
= Liberal Arts: rhetoric, grammar, moral philosophy, philology and history
- intent: boost the abilities of the individual to reason and think

Nicolo Machiavelli: The Prince (1513), discussion of amorality in civic leadership and Discourses on Livy (1519)
- Impact:
1. Intertwining of Classical and Renaissance worlds
2. Explained how and why Princes gained and maintained power
3. Represents the first purely secular understanding of govt.
- removed divine authority
4. First attempt to explain the actions of govt. using a scientific methodology
- Key axiom was Machiavelli’s association of the Prince and peoples interest as the same
- Thus virtuous Prince was defined as a one who gained and maintained power
- Any action that increased a Prince’s virtue was good, thus power became an end that justified any means
Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers to improve society
Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In Praise of Folly most famous intellectual of his times criticized the church: “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched”
- Goal was to unite the individual Christian with textual basis of Christian doctrine
- Attacked scholasticism, superstition and tradition to restore Christ to a central role in people’s lives
Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an island; but to achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights
-society based on reason / mercy (Plato’s Republic + Monastic life)
-no greed, corruption, war or crime (abolished the 7 deadly sins)
- Goal was to instruct people to live a more Christian life
- A society founded on Christian principles would lead to a Christian life
Printing press: Johann Gutenberg – (1450) spread of humanistic literature to rest of Europe.
-1455 movable type and paper emerged resulting in the first printing press.

-in 50 years 9-10 million books were printed.
-Bible is the first book printed by Johann Gutenburg
1. Education increased
2. Enabled government to increase uniformity of law
3. Helped spread newly emerging scientific ideas
4. Standardize language (Latin and Vernacular)
5. Increased the value placed on the discovery of new ideas
Reformation:
1. people form own ideas about religion
2. new ideas spread more quickly
3. people criticize the church more
Myscticism: belief in personal relationship with God; Meister Eckhart, Thomas á Kempis, Gerard Groote:
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
-Reformation: A movement against the Catholic Church starting during the 14th century following the
church abusing their powers (example: indulgences). This movement questioned the Catholic
churches principles and practices, and was led by Luther, Zwingli and Calvin. There was also a
Catholic/counter reformation, reaffirming the churches doctrine and creating the Jesuits.
Causes of the Reformation
Corruption in the Catholic Church: simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (official
holding more than one office), absenteeism (official not participating in benefices), sale of indulgences, nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis), moral decline of the papacy, clerical ignorance
Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Critics of the Church: emphasize a personal relationship with God as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life: Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519) authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
Martin Luther: Leader of the Reformation and founder of Lutheranism. In 1517 he put up the 95 Theses,
beginning the Reformation, which proclaimed all of the problems with the Catholic Church. Luther
placed an importance on the bible, and all people being able to read the bible.
• Began the Protestant reformation, Lutheranism
• 95 Thesis 1517
n††† Salvation by faith alone
n††† No need for sacraments
n††† Bible is the only authority
n††† Consubstantiation
n††† Challenged the concept of monastic life
n††† everyone has an equal relationship with god
n††† don’t need priests
• Salivation by faith alone
• Clergy can marry
• Against the peasant revolts
• Only two Sacraments
• Baptism and Eucharist
John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520; Luther denied both the
authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council ‡ Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Diet of Worms (1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning
Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530: Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and
Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve hegemony of Catholicism
Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic)
political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to
defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism (feudalism)
Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement
As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of believers with no
connection to any state
Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant and
Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists
Millennarians: sect that expected imminent return of Christ
Unitarianism: denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
John Calvin (1509-1564) Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Calvinism: predestination, the “elect,” Puritan or Protestant work ethic.
Most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (1505-1572); presbyters governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority) in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy – heavily Catholic

Henry VIII: 2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; “Defender of the Faith”
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
excommunication by Pope Paul III
Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his divorce
Church of England (Anglican Church)
Act of Supremacy (1934): King is now the head of the English Church
Execution of Thomas More
1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain certain Catholic sacraments
Thomas Cromwell: Oversaw development of king’s bureaucracy
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) tries to reimpose Catholicism
Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back to support Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – the “Virgin Queen”
è effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588
Mary Stuart (“Bloody Mary”) executed
1563, Thirty-Nine Articles: defined creed of Anglican Church
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the church; Pilgrims left for
Holland and then America

THE CATHOLIC COUNTER REFORMATION
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in military fashion
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos (Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states: Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected significantly

Council of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma four next 4 centuries
Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms: abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed, sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
established the local authorities responsibility to select the religion of the area, one faith one king
- Created confusion as princes converted back and forth
- Left no room for moderates
- Both sides philosophical outlook was absolute
- Left no room for moderates, attacked by both sides
- Extremists dominated European politics
Results of Reformation
• The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
• Religious enthusiasm was rekindled – similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages.
• Abuses remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerably remedied by the 17th century.
• Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.

RELIGIOUS WARS: 1560-1648
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559: ends Habsburg Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars)
France kept Holy Roman Empire from gaining hegemony in Germany, inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe
Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) in shape of grill
Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of
earlier Christian Crusades)
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) reimposes Catholicism in England
Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary’s edict
Elizabeth helps Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Spanish Armada, 1588:
French civil wars (at least 9 in last half of 16th c.)
Concordat of Bologna, 1516: French monarchy now controlled Gallican Church
War of the Three Henrys: civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot faction
Catharine de’ Medici: (a Valois) opposed to Huguenots and Catholic Guise family
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre: Huguenots massacred at Catherine’s order
è Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) (1553-1610): first Bourbon king
Edict of Nantes, 1598: granted religious toleration to Huguenots
politiques: monarchs who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)

Netherlands
William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against Inquisition
United Provinces of the Netherlands,1581 (Dutch Republic)
Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium)
closing of the Scheldt River: demise of Antwerp and rise of Amsterdam

Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Four phases of the war:
Bohemian
Defenestration of Prague: triggers war in Bohemia
Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Danish: height of Catholic forces during the war
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634): paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Edict of Restitution (1629): emperor declared all church territories secularized since
1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Swedish: Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase
Gustavus Adolphus: pushed back Catholic forces back to Bohemia
Battle of Breitenfeld, 1630
Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
French: “International Phase”
Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Hapsburg-Valois Wars)
è Treaty of Westphalia (1648): ended Catholic Reformation in Germany
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith)
Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed
Dutch and Swiss independence
300+ German states became sovereign
Results of 30 Years’ War
Germany physically devastated (as much as 1/3 of pop. in certain areas perished)
End to wars of religion
Beginning of rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands

The Baroque

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THE BAROQUE: The “Age of Bernini”
è characteristics: emphasis on grandeur, spaciousness, unity, and emotional impact
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1650): sculptor, architect, painter;
Colonnade for piazza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica
Versailles Palace: Marquis Louvois (architecture); Louis LeVau (1612-70) -- gardens
Schonbrunn Palace in Vienna: Leopold I’s response to Versailles
Art
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
Rembrandt Van Rijn (1606-1669) – greatest painter of the era
Nicolas Poussin (1595-1665) – French Classicism
El Greco: Mannerism (1541-1614) --Emphasized dramatic and emotional qualities
Music
Monteverdi (1547-1643) Orfeo (1607)—first opera
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
Johann Sebastian Bach (16?-1750)
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
Rococo (in France)
Characteristics: elegance, pleasantness, frivolity; contrasts emotional grandeur of Baroque
influenced Haydn and Mozart during the classical period in music (1770-1800)

Absolutism in Eastern Europe

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ABSOLUTISM IN EASTERN EUROPE
èThree aging empires: gave way to new empires of Austria Prussia and Russia
Holy Roman Empire: religious divisions and war in 16th and 17th century
Ottoman Empire: could not maintain possessions in E. Europe and Balkans
Poland: liberum veto – voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous (= weak gov’t)
serfdom: beginning in 16th century and continuing into 18th century, mass of peasantry became serfs
robot: peasants owed lord 3 to 4 days a week of forced labor
Austrian Empire
· Multinational empire: Austrian, Hungarian, & Bohemian kingdoms
· Cosmopolitan aristocracy: serfdom
· Leopold I (1658-1705),: successfully repelled Turks
è Turkish threat: relatively religiously tolerant empire
· Suleiman the Magnificent (d. 1566): nearly conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade (Serbia), nearly 1/2 of Eastern Europe including all Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and part of southern Russia.
· “Janissary corps”: former Christian children dedicated fully to the military
· siege of Vienna, 1683: last attempt by Turks to take Central Europe
· Pragmatic Sanction (1713) issued by Charles VI: Habsburg territories indivisible; only Habsburgs could rule
Prussia: House of Hohenzollern
èFrederick William – The “Great Elector”(1640-1688)
Brandenburg-Prussia rule consolidated after 30 Years’ War: military force & taxation
Junkers: nobility sided with king for stability; hereditary serfdom in 1653
Created most efficient army in Europe
Frederick I (Elector Frederick III) “The Ostentatious” (1688-1713); 1st “King of Prussia”
Allied with Habsburgs in War of League of Augsburg and War of Spanish Succession
Frederick William I (1713-1740) “The Soldiers’ King”
Established Prussian abolutism
“Sparta of the North”: Largely a military state – best army in Europe
Junkers became officers caste in army in return for king’s absolutism
Russia
Slavic and Viking ancestry: 1st millenium AD
Boyars: Russian nobles
Mongols – “Golden Horde” took control in 13th c: left legacy of ruthless rule
Ivan III “Ivan the Great” (1442-1505)
“Third Rome”: Assumed leadership of Orthodox Christian Church;
èIvan IV “Ivan the Terrible” (1533-1584), first to take title “tsar”
Married a Romanov
Defeated last of Mongels: conquered Baltic, Far East, and Black Sea region
Began westernizing
Peasants fled oppressive rule: became “Cossacks”; led to more severe serfdom
“Time of Troubles”, 1584: period of chaos after Ivan’s death
Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Michael Romanov (1613-1645)
Created Russian empire across Asia to the Pacific (largest nation by 1689)
“Old Believers” (The Raskolniki): resisted westernization, severely persecuted.
èPeter the Great (1682-1725)
1698, put down revolt by strelski (Moscow Guards)
westernization (modernization): mostly for military purposes
state-regulated monopolies created; industrial serfdom
Table of Ranks: educational training for new civil service (mostly of nobles)
St. Petersburg begun in 1703 on Baltic; largest city in Northern Europe by his death.
“Winter Palace” sought to emulate Versailles.
Great Northern War (1700-1721)
Charles XII, 18-yr-old Swedish king
Battle of Poltava, 1709: Peter defeated Sweden
Treaty of Nystad (1721): Peter gained Baltic states “window to the West”
Catharine II, “Catharine the Great” (1762-96) – (see Enlightened Despotism)

Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe: 1589-1715

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ABSOLUTISM AND CONSTITUTIONALISM IN WESTERN EUROPE: 1589-1715
èAbsolutism: derived from belief in “divine right of kings”
sovereignty: embodied in the person of the ruler
Jean Bodin (1530-96): gave theoretical basis for absolutist states; wrote during Fr. civil wars
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679: Leviathan
state of nature: anarchy results; central drive in every man is power
Man’s life in a “state of nature” was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short strong,”
Ideas most closely identified with Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism (18th c.)
è Constitutionalism
John Locke, Second Treatise – natural rights: life, liberty and property
state of nature: humans reasonable & well disposed but handicapped by lack of gov’t
(Note: Rousseau’s “state of nature”-- humans essentially good but a few men take
property and resources corrupting communities. i.e., civilization corrupted humans; sought economic equality whereas Locke sought equality of opportunity)
French Absolutism in late 16th through mid-17th centuries
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610) – Bourbon dynasty
Duke of Sully (1560-1641): his reforms enhanced power of the monarchy
mercantilism: increased role of state in the economy
reduced royal debt, reformed tax collection, and improved transportation
Louis XIII (1610-43):
His regency plagued by corruption & mismanagement (mom ruled until he was of age)
è Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642): laid foundation for absolutism in France
Intendant System: sought to weaken nobility
Replaced local officials w/ civil servants who reported directly to the king
Largely filled by middle-class
Further developed mercantilism: increased taxation to fund military
Peace of Alais (1629): Huguenots lost fortified cities & Protestant armies
Began dictionary to standardize the French language
Foreign policy, esp. 30 Years’ War, weakened Hapsburg Empire
è Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) – the “Sun King” L’état, c’est moi (“the state is myself”)
Best model of absolutism in Europe
Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661) : controlled France while Louis XIV a child
The Fronde: aborted revolution directed against Mazarin
“Divine Right theory of rule”: Bishop Jacques Bossuet
France had largest population in Europe (17 million): Accounted for 20% of pop.
Versailles Palace: became a pleasure prison for the French nobility
Religious Policies
Edict of Fountainbleau—revoked Edict of Nantes
Repressed Jansenism (a kind of Calvinism within Catholic Church)
Mercantilism
Jean Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683):promoted mercantilism esp. “bullionism”
His goals was self-sufficiency for France; built roads & canals; gov’t supported monopolies; cracked down on guilds
è By 1683, France leading industrial country: textiles, mirrors, lacemaking,
foundries for steel making and firearms
Weaknesses:
Poor peasant conditions (esp. taxation) resulted in large emigration
Louis opted for army instead of navy; France later lost naval wars w/ England
War in later years nullified Colbert’s gains; Louis at war for 2/3 of his reign
French Classicism
Art: Nicholas Poussin (1593-1665)
Drama: Moliere (1622-1673)
Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)

è Wars of Louis XIV: initially successful but eventually ruinous to France
Creation of modern army
William of Orange (later King William III of England) thwarted Louis’ expansionism
War of Devolution (First Dutch War), 1667-68
Second Dutch War (1672-78) – Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland
Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79): France took Franche-Comté from Spain
League of Augsburg (formed in 1686): HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Rep.
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) – ( King William’s War): ended in status quo
William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.
War of Spanish Succession (1701-13) – (Queen Anne’s War)
will of Charles II (Hapsburg king): all Spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV
Grand Alliance: England, Dutch Rep., HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy
Battle of Blenheim (1704)
Treaty of Utrecht (1713):
Britain was biggest winner: gained asiento from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca.
partitioned Spanish possessions: Belgium given to Austria
Louis’ grandson enthroned, prevented unification of Bourbon dynasties.
Kings recognized in Sardinia (Savoy) and Prussia (Brandenburg)
Costs of Louis XIV’s wars: destroyed French economy, depopulation, weakened Louis XIV.

è Decline of the Spanish Empire (although it remained most powerful military until mid-17th c.)
Spanish Armada, 1588
loss of middle class: Moriscos and Marranos (+ Moors and Jews a century earlier)
inflation
taxation
large number of privileged people who hated work
religion overshadowed politics
defeat in 30 Years’ War: politically and economically disastrous
1640, Portugal reestablished independence.
Treaty of the Pyranees (1659): marked end of Spain as a Great Power
loss of parts of Spanish Netherlands and territory in northern Spain to France
Population in 1660 had declined to 5.5 million from 7.5 million in 1550
Charles II (1665-1700): one of worst rulers in Hapsburg history
No heir to throne resulted in War of Spanish Succession
Spain lost most possessions at Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Decline of Spain exemplified in Don Quixote by Miguel Cervantes (1605)

Constitutionalism in England
James I: belief in “divine right of kings”
King of Scotland; son of Mary “Queen of Scots”
Leadership of Church went to those with Arminian beliefs (predestination but
with “good works”)
Archbishop Laud tried to impose Catholic-style ritual; Puritans dismayed
King claimed “no bishop, no king” to Puritan demand to end bishop control.
Monarchy plagued by lack of revenue (expensive was of Elizabeth drained treasury)
Charles I (1625-1649): sought to rule without Parliament and to control the Anglican Church
Petition of Right, 1628: Parliament attempt to bribe king (taxes) in return for
accepting Parliament’s right to tax, habeas corpus, no quartering, and no
martial law in peacetime
Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629; did not reconvene until 1640
Religious persecution most important reason for civil war: led by Archbishop Laud
Long Parliament – summoned in 1640 (after failure of 2-month “Short Parliament”)
In return for granting taxation, Parliament made demands:
certain high leaders be tried: (Laud eventually executed)
Star Chamber abolished
Parliament could not be dissolved w/o its consent
è The English Civil War (Puritan Revolution; Great Rebellion) – 1642-1649
Cavaliers: supported the king
Roundheads, Puritans opposed king; Oliver Cromwell led “New Model Army”
major issues of the war
Battle of Nasby: Final major battle of war; Scottish Army assisted Cromwell
Division resulted between Presbyterians in Parliament (majority) and soldiers who
were independent and sought congregationalism
New Sects:
Levellers: Radical religious revolutionaries; sought social and political reform.
Quakers: believed in “inner light”; rejected church authority; pacifists
“Rump Parliament”: Pride’s Purge removed all non-Puritans and Presbyterians
from Parliament
Charles I beheaded in 1649
Interregnum: 1649-1660 rule without king
The Commonwealth (1649-1653): a republic – abolished monarch and House of Lords
The Protectorate (1653-1659), Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Dictatorship)

è The Restoration (1660-1688)
Parliament in 1660 reelected according to old franchise: Anglicans back in power
Charles II “The Merry Monarch” (1660-1685): Stuarts restored to the throne
Declaration of Breda: Charles agreed to abide by Parliament’s demands
The Clarendon Code, 1661: Anglicans excluded Dissenters (Puritans) from politics
Declaration of Indulgence, 1673: Charles II granted free worship to Catholics
Test Act of 1673: all officeholders must take communion in Anglican Church
Was Anglican response to Declaration of Indulgence
Habeas Corpus Act (1679): no arbitrary arrest and speedy trial
Parliament was split and fragmented into two political parties
Tories: king’s supporters, nobles
Whigs: middle-class and merchants; also high aristocracy
Scotland gained its independence in 1660 as result of Restoration
Charles attempted to impose Anglicanism in Scotland; war resulted
James II (1685-1688): sought to Catholicize England; forced to abdicate
èGlorious Revolution (1688)
William III (William of Orange) and Mary: Protestantism secured in England
Act of Toleration: granted religious freedom (except to Catholics, Jews, and
Unitarians
Bill of Rights (1689): constitutional monarchy
British Constitution: consisted of habeas corpus act, petition of right, and bill of rights
John Locke: Two Treatises on Government: philosophical argument for supremacy of
Parliament
Act of Settlement (1701): only Anglican could succeed to the throne
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) – (King William’s War) – (see wars of Louis XIV)
Queen Anne (1702-1714):
Act of Union (1707) – English and Scottish Parliaments merged = Great Britain
Royal veto used for last time
èCabinet System of preparing laws for Parliament developed during early 18th century
Hanoverian Kings: George I, George II, George III
Prime minister became leader of cabinet and responsible to majority party in the
House of Commons.
Robert Walpole (1721-1742) became first prime minister
Weaknesses of British democracy (c. 1800)
Limited suffrage
unfair representation (“rotton boroughs”)
open voting
religious-property requirements for office
hereditary House of Lords
United Provinces of the Netherlands: 17th century = “Golden Age of the Netherlands”
è Confederation of 7 provinces: each province autonomous with its leader--stadtholder
wealthiest and most civilized country in Europe
Calvinism and Arminianism
Amsterdam became center of commerce (replacing Antwerp)
Impact of War of Spanish Succession (Treaty of Utrecht)
Sweden: Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32) reorganized gov’t; nobles dominated army & bureaucracy

The Protestant Reformation

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THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
Causes of the Reformation
Corruption in the Catholic Church: simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (official
holding more than one office), absenteeism (official not participating in benefices), sale of indulgences, nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis), moral decline of the papacy, clerical ignorance
Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Critics of the Church: emphasize a personal relationship with God as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life: Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
è Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519) authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
95 Theses: Criticized sale of indulgences:
Contrast Lutheranism with Catholicism (see separate hand out).
John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520; Luther denied both the
authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council
excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Diet of Worms (1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and
sentence execution through stake-burning
Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530: Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and
Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Impact on Women: stressed marriage and the Christian home
marriage was a woman’s career
women should be educated – schools for girls (Philip Melancthon)
Spread of Protestantism
è Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve hegemony of Catholicism
Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic)
political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to
defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism (feudalism)
Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement
As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of believers with no
connection to any state
Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant and
Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists
Millennarians: sect that expected imminent return of Christ
Unitarianism: denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Michael Servetus a major figure
Luther’s views on new sects and the peasantry: did not believe in violent protest nor
legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism
Denmark, Sweden became Lutheran
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
è John Calvin (1509-1564) Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Calvinism: predestination, the “elect,” Puritan or Protestant work ethic.
Most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Michael Servetus (1511-1553): Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake
è Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (1505-1572); presbyters governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority) in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy – heavily Catholic
Reformation in England
John Wycliffe (1329-1384): Lollards
Henry VIII: 2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; “Defender of the Faith”
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
excommunication by Pope Paul III
Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his divorce
è Church of England (Anglican Church)
Act of Supremacy (1934): King is now the head of the English Church
Execution of Thomas More
1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain certain Catholic sacraments
Thomas Cromwell: Oversaw development of king’s bureaucracy
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) tries to reimpose Catholicism
Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back to support Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – the “Virgin Queen”
è effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
Mary Stuart (“Bloody Mary”) executed
1563, Thirty-Nine Articles: defined creed of Anglican Church
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the church; Pilgrims left for
Holland and then America

THE CATHOLIC COUNTER REFORMATION (also called Catholic Reformation)
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
è Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in military fashion
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos (Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states: Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected significantly
èCouncil of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma four next 4 centuries
Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms: abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed, sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
èResults of Reformation
· The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
· Religious enthusiasm was rekindled – similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages.
· Abuses remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerably remedied by the 17th century.
· Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.
Marx and Weber theses:
Marx: capitalism (work ethic) led to Protestantism – favored by middle class
Weber: capitalism furthered Protestantism but did not cause it.

RELIGIOUS WARS: 1560-1648
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559: ends Habsburg Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars)
France kept Holy Roman Empire from gaining hegemony in Germany, inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe
Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) in shape of grill
Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of
earlier Christian Crusades)
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) reimposes Catholicism in England
Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary’s edict
Elizabeth helps Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Spanish Armada, 1588:
French civil wars (at least 9 in last half of 16th c.)
Concordat of Bologna, 1516: French monarchy now controlled Gallican Church
War of the Three Henrys: civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot faction
Catharine de’ Medici: (a Valois) opposed to Huguenots and Catholic Guise family
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre: Huguenots massacred at Catherine’s order
è Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) (1553-1610): first Bourbon king
Edict of Nantes, 1598: granted religious toleration to Huguenots
politiques: monarchs who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)

Netherlands
William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against Inquisition
United Provinces of the Netherlands,1581 (Dutch Republic)
Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium)
closing of the Scheldt River: demise of Antwerp and rise of Amsterdam

èThirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Four phases of the war:
Bohemian
Defenestration of Prague: triggers war in Bohemia
Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Danish: height of Catholic forces during the war
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634): paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Edict of Restitution (1629): emperor declared all church territories secularized since
1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Swedish: Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase
Gustavus Adolphus: pushed back Catholic forces back to Bohemia
Battle of Breitenfeld, 1630
Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
French: “International Phase”
Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Hapsburg-Valois Wars)
è Treaty of Westphalia (1648): ended Catholic Reformation in Germany
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith)
Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed
Dutch and Swiss independence
300+ German states became sovereign
Results of 30 Years’ War
Germany physically devastated (as much as 1/3 of pop. in certain areas perished)
End to wars of religion
Beginning of rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands

Commerical Revolution 1500-1700

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COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION (16th century: approx. 1500-1700)
è Significance: brought about age of discovery and exploration
Causes:
population growth: 70 million in 1500; 90 million in 1600
“price revolution”: (long slow upward trend); increased food prices, increased volume of $,
influx of gold & silver
rise in capitalism (laissez-faire):entrepreneurs; bourgeoisie at the forefront
banking: Fuggers, Antwerp in 16th c., Amsterdam in 17th c.
chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain area (BEIC, DEIC)
joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for common purpose
(forerunner of modern corporation)
stock markets: e.g., Bourse in Germany
“Putting-out” Industry
new industries: cloth production, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons &
muskets
consumer goods: rice, sugar, tea
mercantilism: nations sought self-sufficient economy; “bullionism”

AGE OF EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST (“Old Imperialism”)
Causes for exploration:
Christian Crusaders in 11th & 14th centuries created European interest in Asia and Middle East
Francis Xavier: Catholic missionary in 16th c.
Rise of nation states (“New Monarchs”) resulted in competition for empires and trade
Portugal and Spain sought to break the Italian monopoly on trade with Asia.
Technology facilitated sea travel: astrolab, better maps
Commercial revolution resulted in capitalist investments in overseas exploration
Religious desire to convert pagan peoples in the New World
Impact of Renaissance: search for knowledge, adventurism, monopoly of Italian trade with East
Cartography
Evangelista Toscanelli (1608-1647)
Martin Behaim (1459-1507) and Schoner
Portugal
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): financed exploration
Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500): rounded southern tip of Africa
Vasco da Gama (1469-1525): route to India
Alphonso d’Albuquerque (1453-1515): established empire in Spice Islands after 1510
Pedro Cabral (1467-1520): sighted Brazil
Amerigo Vespucci: “America” named after him
Spain: Explorers
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
Bartholomew de las Casas (1474-1566) – writings helped spread “black legend”
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): New World divided by Spain and Portugal; Pope Leo VI
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517): Isthmus of Panama
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521): circumnavigation of the globe
è Spain: Conquistadores: began creating empires by conquering Indians
Hernando Cortès (1485-1547): Aztecs
Francisco Pizzaro (1478-1541): Incas
Mestizos: mixed white and Indian descent
Creoles: American-born Spaniards
Audencias: Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to viceroy and highest judicial body.
Encomienda: Indians worked for owner certain # days per week; retained other parcels to work for themselves.
France
Giovanni da Verrazano (1480-1527): explored northern Atlantic coast of modern-day U.S.
Jacques Cartier (1491-1557): search for Northwest Passage (explored Canada)
Samuel de Champlain: “Father of New France”
England
John (1425-1500) and Sebastian (1474-1557) Cabot: explored northeast coat of N. America
Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596): led English “sea dogs” against Spanish shipping
Sir Martin Frobisher (1535-1594): northeastern Canadian coast
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), Roanoke Settlement

The Renaissance

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THE RENAISSANCE
The Modern World; contrast with the Later Middle Ages
Renaissance: mainly in Italy (1300-1600)
Origins of Renaissance: Jacob Burckhardt – claimed period in distinct contrast to Middle Ages
Northern Italian cities developed international trade: Genoa, Venice, Milan
popolo (middle class) took power in 13th century; republican gov’t short-lived
signori (despots) or oligarchies (rule of merchant aristocracies) by 1300
commenda: Contract between merchant and “merchant-adventurer” who agreed to
take goods to distant locations and return with the proceeds (for 1/3 of profits)
Politics among the Italian City-States
o Major city-states and figures
Republic of Florence (Included Republic of Genoa) – Medici family
Cosimo De’Medici (1389-1464): allied with other powerful families of
Florence and became unofficial ruler of the republic
Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492): lavish patron of the arts
Duchy of Milan -- Sforza family (Caterina Sforza (1463-1509), great art patron)
Rome, the Papal States – papacy (“Renaissance popes”)
Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Venice, Venetian Republic
Isabella d’Este (1474-1539): most famous Renaissance female ruler (ruled Mantua)
condottieri: leaders of private armies hired by cities for military purposes
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in Florence 1494-98; (predicted French
invasion due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states); burned at the stake
Charles VIII (1483-1498), French invasions of Italy; Italy became battleground for
international ambitions
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) -- The Prince (1513) – Cesare Borgia
Charles V, sack of Rome in 1527: symbolizes end of Renaissance in Italy

èHumanism -- Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature
Petrarch—“Dark Ages” metaphor; “father of humanism” and 1st modern writer, literature no
longer subordinate to religion
Boccacio – Decameron: aimed to impart wisdom of human character and behavior.
Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Oration on the Dignity of Man; Platonic academy
Education: (emphasis on Latin and Greek)
Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) – The Book of the Courtier
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) – wrote history of Florence; division of historical periods;
narrative form; civic humanist; first to use term “humanism”
Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)—On the False Donation of Constantine (1444); study of Latin
Individualism/ secularism: “man is the measure of all things”
virtú: the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit
Printing press: Johann Gutenberg – spread of humanistic literature to rest of Europe.

Renaissance Art
Florence the leader in Renaissance art esp. in quattrocento (1400s_
Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) – contemporary Renaissance art historian.
Giotto (1266-1336) – considered 1st Renaissance artist, use of chiaroscuro
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) – architect of cathedrals (il duomo in Florence)
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), architect of cathedrals.
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) -- sculptor: bronze doors for Florentine baptistry
Donatello (1386-1466 – sculptor: David (young)
Masaccio (1401-1428) painter: real, nude human figures
Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516) – Portrait of a Condottiere
Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) – painter: Birth of Venus
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1574) – goldsmith and sculptor
“High Renaissance” centered in Rome (1500-1527) – cinquecento (1500s)
Most worldly of Renaissance popes – Alexander VI (1492-1503); Julius II (1503-
1513); and Leo X (1513-1521)
Characteristics: classical balance, harmony, restraint
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) – Last Supper, Mona Lisa; “Renaissance Man”
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) – School of Athens
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), “universal man”; Sistine Chapel; David;
pieta: Mary holding limp body of Christ considered most perfect marble sculpture
Titian
Society
Women: Christine de Pisan (1363?-1434?): The City of Ladies; The Book of Three Virtues
Perhaps Europe’s first feminist
Blacks: exotic and highly prized

Northern Renaissance
è Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers to improve society
Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In Praise of Folly
most famous intellectual of his times
criticized the church: “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched”
Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an island; but to
achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights
Jacques Lefevre d’Etables (1454-1536): leading French humanist; produced 5
versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative Bible.
Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517): reformed Spanish clergy and church,
Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition
Northern Renaissance Art
Low Countries produced especially important artists
Jan Van Eyck – Flemish painter, detailed realistic works
Peter Brueghel the Elder (1520-1569)—focused on lives of ordinary people
Bosch –master of symbolism and fantasy; religious and folk legends as themes
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) German – foremost northern Renaissance artist.
Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543): Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More
Writers
Francois Rabelais’ (1494-1553) Gargantua and Pantagruel
Montaigne (1533-1592) – developed essay form; modern skepticism
Germany
Regiomontanus; Nicholas of Cusa: mathematics
Copernicus : heliocentric theory
Cartography: Behaim and Schoner
Fugger family in Germany (esp. Jacob Fugger (1459-1525): international banking,
patronized the arts
Myscticism: Meister Eckhart, Thomas á Kempis, Gerard Groote: belief in personal
relationship with God
Include other Germans listed above
England:
Elizabethan Period
William Shakespeare
Jacobean Period (James I)
Authorized Bible, 1604
John Milton
Spain: Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616): Don Quixote
Domenikos El Greco (1541-1614): painter: mannerism

è “New” Monarchs: consolidated power and created Europe’s first modern nation-states
French recovery after 100 Years’ War: Valios line of monarchs
Louis XI “Spider King” (1461-83): large royal army, taxes, power over clergy
Francis I (1515-1547): Condordat of Bologna, taille
England: after 100 Years’ War
War of the Roses – victorious House of Lancaster = rise of Tudor dynasty:
Henry VII (1489-1509): Star Chamber (nobles tried w/o jury; often tortured)
Henry VIII (1509-1547): English reformation
Spain
Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (1478-1516) & Isabella of Castile (1474-1504):
1492: unified Spain; Reconquista—removed last of Moors; expulsion of
Jews
hermandades: alliance of cities to oppose nobles
Spanish Inquisition: monarchy enforced authority of the national church
Habsburg Empire: (Holy Roman Empire)
Maximilian I (1493-1519): gained much territory with marriage to Mary of Burgundy
Charles V: most powerful ruler in Europe (1st Holy Roman Emperor)
ruled Spanish and Austrian Hapsburg branches, sacked Rome in 1527
sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany

Life in the 16th and 17th centuries
Compare to life during the Later Middle Ages
Hierarchy:
Countryside: manorial lords, peasants, landless workers
Cities: merchants (bourgeoisie), artisans, laborers
education or wealth became means of moving up social ladder (for the fortunate few)
Demography: population growth leveled by 1650; cities saw larger increase than countryside
Family: nuclear family; patriarchal; avg. lifespans – men = 27, women = 25!; divorce rare
Witch Hunts: as many as 100,000 executed between 1500-1700; mostly elderly women
Food and Diet: commoners relied on bread (& beer); upper-classes enjoyed meats, cheese,
sweets; English ate the best; famines were reality in many parts
Slavery:
introduced by Portuguese
blacks seen as exotic, highly prized in certain areas
“American form” of slavery existed in Mediterranean sugar plantations

Later Middle Ages

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Crisis of the Later Middle Ages:
è Black Death (1347): loss of 1/3 of European population (mostly in cities)
Causes: bubonic plague carried by fleas on Asian black rats; poor sanitation, overcrowded
homes, poor health, poor hygiene, poor housing
Results: Severe impact on European economy; in some areas workers enjoyed higher wages;
best of clergy died (staying behind to help the sick); Jews blamed; serfdom ended in many areas; first enclosure of fields in Britain
Population did not reach pre-plague level until the mid-16th century.
è Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): cause—English lays claim to some French land
Joan of Arc: led French army to victory at Orleans during crucial stage of the war
Results: France kicks England out; creation of modern nation states begin (“New Monarchs”)
Peasant Revolts
Causes: taxation during Hundred Years’ War, desire for higher wages, hostility toward
aristocracy, and higher expectations among peasantry.
English Peasant Revolt (1381):
Jacquerie in France (late 14th-early 15th c.)
Results: revolts crushed; end of serfdom in England c. 1550

è Nationalist literature of the Later Middle Ages – use of the vernacular (national tongue)
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), The Divine Comedy (1321) (also a Renaissance figure)
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400): Canterbury Tales – portrayed English life
Francois Villon (1431-1463): Grand Testament (1461) – greatest poet of Medieval France
portrayed ordinary French life with humor and emotion.

è Crisis in the Catholic Church
Early Criticisms of the church
Marsiglio de Padua: Defender of Peace – Church should be subordinate to the state
Church should be governed by a council of laity and priests superior to pope.
John Wyclif (1320-1384): church should only follow Scripture; English
translation of Bible; his later followers were Lollards
John Huss (1369-1415): ideas similar to Wyclif; nationalist party in Czech (Bohemia)
Hussites: followers of Huss who staged large rebellions in 14th century.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): 7 successive popes resided at Avignon, France
Damaged papal prestige (esp. in England & Germany); Rome’s economy damaged
Great Schism (c. 1377-1417): Further conflict led to election of two popes—one in Rome,
one in France; further hurt prestige of church
Conciliar Movement (1409-1418): ended schism; failed as movement to put power in a
church council; pope’s power still supreme

Life in Later Middle Ages
Marriage: avg. age for men = mid-20s; women = 16-18
divorce was unheard of
economic reasons most important for marriage (love not until 18th-19th centuries)
prostitution in cities (men didn’t marry until later)
Work:
agricultural cycles and church ritual closely linked
small % of men were artisans in towns; protected by guilds
Serfdom reduced in many areas
Recreation: aristocracy – jousting tournaments; common people—archery, wrestling, bull-
baiting, bear-baiting; alcoholism rampant
Laity increasingly managed parish lands
Fur-collar crime: corrupt nobles (esp. England) took advantage of peasantry

Medieval philosophy: scholasticism (St. Thomas Aquinas)
Attempted to reconcile faith and reason by using logic to support Christian doctrine
Worked to reconcile Aristotle’s ideas with Christianity

The Dawn of a New Era..

2007-08-05T22:48:00.000-07:00

Well, the time has come for me to bid U.S. History goodbye for the time being and welcome AP European History into my life. Now in my own personal opinion I must admit U.S. History and I do not have the best relationship (whether it be because I'd rather live in Europe, or simplly because I'm an unpatriotic-country-hating-soon-to-be-arrested-by-the-FBI-and-CIA-heathen... or possibly both). The point is I've always been a more World History kind of gal, the type that likes to consider more of the world than simply one's own relatively insignificant country. Though European history isn't necessarily World history, it is one step closer and I have a feeling it will concern a much broader scope than the tax laws of Wisconsin in the 1900s. Of course it is more than likely that half-way through the year you will find me ranting and raving about how much I hate European History and the waste of time it is blah blah blah... the usual AP class workloaded panic. For now though, I can hope for the best and start the class with some eagerness. So it is time for me to bid adieu to "History Cram APUSH" and bring forth the new and improved "History Cram AP Euro". I'll still leave some APUSH links up for those who need to get their patriotic fix, but from now on this blog has a new focus. *cracks open a bottle of champagne* Au Revior mon amis!

Turn of the Century and WWI Terms

2007-04-20T17:03:00.000-07:00

Laws related to US foreign Policy

Teller Amendment (1898)
• The Amendment promised that when the US overthrew Spanish rule in Cuba, the US would give Cubans their independence
• Later, the Platt Amendment would override the Teller Amendment as Cuba would come under US control after the Spanish-American War

Cuba and Platt Amendment (1901)
• Rider attached to Army appropriations bill
• It was written into the constitution of Cuba by the US and, in effect, made Cuba a US protectorate
• The US could intervene to preserve Cuba’s “independence”; in reality, the US could act to protect its own interests
• The US kept land for naval bases on Cuba; Guantanamo Bay would play a part in later Cuba-US conflicts

Hay-Pauceforte Treaty (1901)-
• British canceled treaty of 1850 allowing any canal in Central America to be under joint Brit-US control
• Allowed the US to dig the Panama Canal without British involvement

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)-
• Justified US intervention in Latin American countries when necessary
• US could send gunboats to Latin American country that was delinquent in paying its debts
• US sailors and marines occupy ports to manage collection of custom taxes until debt paid off

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)-
• Sec. Of State Elihu Root & Japanese Ambassador Takahira pledged mutual respect for each nations Pacific possessions and support for Open Door policy in China

The Lodge Corollary-
• Stated that non-European powers would be excluded from owning territory in the Western Hemisphere
• Proposed by Henry Cabot Lodge who feared Japanese schemes to acquire land
• Opposed by Pres. Taft, offended Japan & Latin American Countries

The Progressive Era – Laws and Policies

Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal-
• President should do much more than lead executive departments
• President’s job to set legislative agenda for Congress
• Government will step in to settle disputes between labor and business

“Square Deal” for labor-
• Government intervention in disputes between labor and business
o 1902 Coal strike, mediated btw parties and threatened to take over mines if owners refused to compromise

Food and Drug Act (1906)-
• Forbade the manufacture, sale, and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled food & drugs

Meat Inspection Act (1906)-
• Placed strict controls on the meat industry‡The Secretary of Agriculture can inspect any meat for safety
• 4 requirements
o Inspection of livestock
o Post mortem for carcasses
o Sanitation
o Ongoing monitoring from the secretary of agriculture's dept

Payne-Aldrich Tariff(1909)-
• Proposed by Sereno Payne(R) and Nelson Alrich(R)
• Began as a bill that lowered tariffs but ended up raising tariffs though compromises
• Split the republican party into the true progressives and the Old Guard conservatives

Underwood Tariff (1913)-
• First federal income tax.
• Introduced the tax bracket system instead of fixed rates.
• Lowered tariffs, and income tax became the new source of income for the government

Wilson’s New Freedom (1913)-
• Wilson’s inaugural address pledged commitment to bring back conditions of free and fair competition in the economy
• Wilson attacked tariffs, banking, & trusts

Federal Reserve Act (1913)
• Response to the Panic of 1907 and concerns of business
• Need for a stable currency supply that could grow and shrink with business demands
• Several measures competed for designing this central reserve, ,each offering control to a different group
• President Wilson worked diligently to create and secure passage of act
• Divided the nation into separate regions with federal reserve banks in each that would serve as “banker’s banks”
• The Federal Reserve Board oversaw the system and regulated it by raising or lowering the interest rates that each federal reserve bank would charge

Clayton Antitrust Act (1914)-
• Further outlined regulations against monopolies and other unfair business practices
• Meant as update for the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890
• Price discrimination that was destructive to competition was declared illegal
• Declared interlocking board of directors of direct competitors illegal
• Established Federal Trade Commission to investigate and prosecute instances of unfair competition
• Served as the grounds for many suits against big corporations
• Exempted labor unions engaged in legal activities

Federal Trade Commission (1914)-
• Regulatory agency that was allowed to investigate any "unfair trade practice" in every industry except for banking and transportation
• It was established to work against trusts

Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)-
• 12 regional farm loan banks were set up
• Farmers could put up to 50% of their land and 20% of their improvements as collateral
• Small farmers could improve their conditions and buy new equipment to challenge larger businesses with available capital

Keating-Owen Child Labor Act (1916)-
• Forbade shipment of products whose production had involved child labor
• Power of enforcement derived from interstate commerce, so the federal government could regulate it rather than states
• Declared unconstitutional because it interfered with the power of states

More important Laws

Sixteenth Amendment-
• Congress can collect an income tax for the spending of the federal government alone

Seventeenth Amendment (ratified 1913)-
• A progressive initiative that allowed for each state to elect 2 senators for 6-year terms by popular vote
• Restated the first paragraph of Article 1, Section 3 of the Constitution by replacing “chosen by Legislature thereof” with “elected by the people thereof”
• Allowed citizens to have a more active participation in the government

Eighteenth Amendment (1919)-
• Prohibition
• Made the creation, sale and transport of alcohol in the United States illegal and the state government has the ability to enforce this law with legislation

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)-
• 19th Amendment provided for women’s suffrage, which had been defeated earlier by the Senate
• Ratified by states 1920
• Feminists who supported suffrage since the 1860s included: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Carrie Chapman Catt

Espionage and Sedition Acts (1917 and 1918)-
• Fines and imprisonment for persons who made false statements which aided the enemy, hindered the draft, or incited military rebellion
• Forbade criticism of the government, flag, or uniform
• Led to imprisonment of major figures
• The Supreme Court upheld the acts, allowing the government to limit free speech when words represented clear and present danger, especially during times of war

Chapter 22 - Jake 3 minute REVIEW notes

2007-04-19T21:50:00.000-07:00

This isn't meant to replace the textbook. Only for quick review purpose.

Notes – Battle for National Reform

Guiding questions

How did the nature of the executive power change with Roosevelt’s Presidency?

Why did the presidents at this time attack the trusts so much?

Why did the United States turn militaristic against the foreign nations at this time?

Notes

I. Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency
1. The Accidental President
a. McKinley dies in 1901 à Roosevelt becomes the president after him.
b. A rancher in the Dakota badlands à commander of the Rough Riders (hence the stereotype)

2. Government, Capital, and Labor
a. Viewed the federal power as the mediator of the public good à mediator for labor.
b. Not completely against the trusts, but dissolved Northern Securities Company of J.P Morgan.

3. “The Square Deal”
a. At first, concerned with re-election à wins the election of 1904 for second term
b. Square Deal for everyone à Hepburn Act: Control of the Railroads. Pure Food and Drug Act

4. Roosevelt and Conservation and Preservation
a. Concerned with the environment and natural resources à national parks ↑
b. New Lands Act: Federal aid to fund dams, reservations, and canals in the west.
c. Naturalist ideals + Pragmatic Conservationist (conservation to further make use of resources)
d. Hetch Hetchy Controversy – Roosevelt ↑ the dam building in San Francisco: practicality↑↑

5. The Panic of -1907
a. Overproduction from industry à Speculation↑ à Crash à Conservatives blame Roosevelt à J.P Morgan lends gold for letting US Steel absorb Tennessee Coal and Iron Company

II. The Troubled Succession
1. Taft and the Progressives: failed attempts at lowering tariffs
a. William Howard Taft à Payne-Aldrich Tariff: no effect in lowering tariffs at all
b. Moderate with reformation: Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute over forest/mineral reserves
à Alienated Roosevelt supporters by kicking Pinchot out

2. The Return of Roosevelt
a. Roosevelt returns to politics à New Nationalism: powerful federal government
b. Taft kills Tennessee Coal and Iron Company/US Steel of Morgan for antitrust.
c. Republican party nominates Taft à Roosevelt forms the Progressive Party.

III. Woodrow Wilson and the New Freedom
1. Woodrow Wilson
a. New Freedom: anti-monopoly↑. Wilson wins the election of 1912 against Taft and Roosevelt
b. Executive powers↑, Tariff↓ Federal Reserve Act: 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks + Federal Reserve Notes used with Government backing the currency
c. Monopoly à Regulatory Commission to bust the trusts à Legal attacks on monopoly↑

2. Retreat and Advance
a. Women’s suffrage ↓ by Wilson at first, segregation ↑↑ in south.
b. Wilson loses some progressive support à then supports reforms and passes child labor laws

IV. The “Big Stick”: America and the World, 1901~1917
1. The Iron-fisted neighbor
a. Roosevelt distinguished the civilized nation as industrial powers
b. Roosevelt wins the Nobel Peace Prize for ending Russo-Japanese War: Open door↑↑↑
c. Roosevelt Corollary + Monroe Doctrine: US right to intervene to domestic issues in Latin Am.
d. Taft: Dollar Diplomacy – invest in Latin America à dominate their economy
e. Moral Diplomacy: Intervened in Mexican Revolution to kill Pancho Villaà attacked Veracruz

Chapter 23: America and the Great War

2007-04-16T17:10:00.000-07:00

I. The Road to War
A. The Collapse of the European Peace

Competing Alliances
“Triple Entente” (Britain, France, Russia) vs. “Triple Alliance” (Germany, Austria-Hungry, Italy)

Underlying struggle btw Britain & Germany

June 28 1914, assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo, Bosnia
In less than year, entire Euro continent & part of Asia in War

B. Wilson’s Neutrality

Wilson -> “remain impartial in thought as well as deed”
German & Irish Americans --> support German cause, Wilson & many --> support for Britain
Economic Ties to Britain
Brits imposed naval blockade on Germany, US continued to trade with Brits (not truly neutral)
Ally war demands --> economic Boom in U.S.
1915 U.S. gone from neutral power --> arsenal of allies
Lusitania – British passenger liner, also carrying munitions, that was sunk by German submarine and resulted in the death of 128 Americans

Wilson demanded Germany not repeat attacks and recognize Americans neutrality & and ability to safely travel in belligerent waters

1916 Brits arm merchant vessels to compete against German submarines --> Germany declares would fire on such vessels w/o warning

Germans sink unarmed French Sussex (killing American passengers) --> Wilson demands an end to “unlawful” tactics --> Germans agree

Germans relented b/c marginally effective tactics not worth drawing Americans into war

C. Preparedness vs. Pacifism

Wilson battling for reelection needed to acknowledge factions opposing intervention
--> Policies attempted to balance demands of defending national honor & economic interests against demands of taking no action that would increase chance of war
1915 Wilson endorsed ambitious proposal for large & rapid increase in armed forces
1916 Democratic convention --> “He kept us out of war”
1916 Election – Wilson narrowly beats Hughes

D. A War for Democracy

Jan 1917, speech before congress, Wilson created own rational behind going to war

U.S. had no material aims

Committed to using war as vehicle for constructing new world order based on progressive ideals that motivated American reform

Peace through permanent league of nations

Provocation for War

German policy --> assaults on enemy lines in France with unrestricted submarine warfare (allied & amer. Ships) to cut off Brit supplies

Zimmermann Telegram – Feb 25th, intercepted telegram from German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann to Mex government

In case of war Mexicans should side with Germans against Americans

Would regain lost provinces

March 1917 – collapse of Czarist Russia

U.S. would not be allied with monarchy

April 2nd – Wilson asks Congress for Declaration of war

Protect democracy & rights and liberties of small nations

April 6 Congress passes Declaration of war

II. “War Without Stint”
A. Entering the War

When U.S. entered, Europe in stalemate
Most immediate effect on sea conflict

Destroyers aided assault on U-Boats

Warships escorted merchant vessels

Submarine mines in North Sea

Russian Revolution --> Russia withdraws from war, treaty with Germany giving up land and freeing up western troops
--> American ground troops necessary

B. The American Expeditionary Forces

U.S. had few and inexperienced soldiers
Selective Service Act – national draft
American Expeditionary Force (AEF) - 3 million from draft, 2 million into army services voluntarily

Most diverse fighting force US had ever assembled

Women allowed to enlist --> roles in hospitals and offices

400,000 black soldiers – segregated units w/ white commanding officer

C. The Military Struggle

General John J. Pershing – commanded AEF as it joined Allied forces
Chåteau-Thierry - June 1918, American forces helped repel German attack that brought Germans 50 miles from Paris
July 18 Allies halted German advance and began own offense
Meuse-Argonne Offensive – Sept 26 1918, American fighting force began 7 week attack that helped push Germans back towards own border & cut major supply lines
Germans faced with invasion of own country --> sought armistice to prelude negotiations
November 11, 1918 Great War ended

D. The New Technology of Warfare

Machine guns & high-powered artillery --> development of trench warfare
Development of tanks, flamethrowers, chemical weapons allowed forces to attack entrenched soldiers without direct combat
--> Need for elaborate maintenance and supplies
Airplanes played significant role – bombers, fighters, reconnaissance
New naval battleships – turbine propulsion, hydraulic gun controls, electric light & power, wireless telegraphy, navigation aids
New technologies --> High Casualty Rates

III. The War and American Society

Mobilizing industrial economy for total war required great government involvement in industry, agriculture, and other areas
Required strenuous effort to ensure loyalty & commitment of people

B. Organizing the Economy for War
∑ Financing the War - $32 billion appropriated by gov for expenses directly related to the conflict

1) “Liberty Bonds” – gov’s attempted to solicit loans from American people

1920 - $23 billion

2) New taxes – excess corporation profits, steeply graduated income & inheritance taxes

$10 billion

Organizing the Economy

1) Wilson established Council of National Defense (1916) – set up local defense councils in every state, econ mobilization rested on large-scale dispersal of power to local communities

Proved completely unworkable

Council members (influenced by engineering gospel and “scientific management”) urged more centralized approach

Divide power through several planning bodies supervising a specific sector of the econ

2) War Industries Board (1917) – coordinated government purchases of military supplies

Restructured in 1918 and put under control of Bernard Baruch

Baruch appeared to provide centralized regulation of economy

WIB, in fact, plagued by mismanagement and inefficiency

American resources and productive capacities > WIB

Government was working to enhance private sector through mutually beneficial alliance

Lessons of the Managed Economy

Spectacular accomplishments (organization of domestic food supplies and railroads)

Leaders of gov and industry convinced of a close, cooperative relationship btw the public and private sectors

Hoped to continue wartime experiment in peacetime

C. Labor and the War

The National War Labor Board (April 1918) – resolve labor disputes & pressured industry to grant important concessions to workers

8 hr work day

Maintenance of minimal living standards

Equal pay for women doing equal work

Recognition of the right of unions to organize and bargain collectively

Insisted workers forgo strikes and employers not engage in lockouts
War provided workers w/ important temporary gains but did not stop labor militancy
Ludlow Massacre (1914) - Western Federation of Minders struck against Rockefeller coal mines --> strikebreakers & militia attacked workers’ tent colony --> 39 dead

D. Economic and Social Results of the War

War --> Boom, began 1914 b/c of Euro demands, accelerated 1917 from US demands
“Great Migration” – migration of many African Americans from rural south into northern industrial cities

Push – poverty, indebtedness, racism, violence

Pull – prospect of factory jobs in urban North, opportunity to live in communities where blacks could enjoy more freedom & autonomy

Increase in black communities --> race riots

War = new opportunities for women

Worked in wide range of industrial jobs left behind by men

After war women either fired or quit these jobs

Women in Industry Board – formed to oversee movement of women into jobs left behind by men in military, remained even after war --> Women’s Bureau – permanent agency dedicated to protecting interest of women in the work force

IV. The Search For Social Unity
A. The Peace Movement

Pre 1917: German Americans, Irish Americans, religious pacifists, intellectuals, Socialist Party, Industrial Workers of the world

War = meaningless battle among capitalist nations for commercial supremacy

Women’s Peace Party (1915) – developed by Carrie Chapman Catt, efforts to keep US from intervening in war
Post 1917 – National American Woman Suffrage Association supported war and presented itself as patriotic organization, Catt abandoned peace cause --> called for woman suffrage as war measure
Jane Addams, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and others still opposed war
Maternal Opposition to War – moral and maternal basis for pacifism

B. Selling the War and Suppressing Dissent

War --> boost to religious revivalism --> support for war
Committee on Public Information (CPI) – directed by George Creel, supervised distribution of pro-war literature

Urged “self censorship” in news

At first presented facts --? anti German propaganda (The Kaiser: Beast of Berlin) --> encouraged Americans to think of Germans as savages

Espionage Act of 1917 – stiff penalties for spying, sabotage, obstruction of war effort; empowered post office to ban seditious material from mails
Sabotage Act & Sedition Act (1918) - any public expression of opposition to the war = illegal; officials could persecute anyone who criticized pres or gov
Acts targeted anti-capitalist groups (Socialist party & IWW)
Repressing Dissent
American Protective League – group whose members served as “agents” discovering dissenting individuals
National Security League, Boy Spies of America, American Defense Society
“100 Percent Americanism”
Anti-German measures

V. The Search for a New World Order
A. The Fourteen Points

Jan 8, 1918 Wilson presented principles nation was fighting for --> fourteen points

8 recommendations for adjusting postwar boundaries & for establishing new nations

right of all peoples to self-determination

5 general principles to govern international conduct in future

freedom of the seas

open covenants (no secret treaties)

reductions in armaments

free trade

impartial mediation of colonial claims

League of nations

Flaws

No formula for deciding how to apply “self-determination”

Little about economic rivalries and their effect on international relations

Lenin’s Challenge

Dec 1917 Lenin issued own war aims (very similar to Wilson’s)

Wilson’s last minute attempt to keep Russia in war

Wilson realized Lenin = competitor in postwar order

B. Early Obstacles

Allied leaders resented U.S.’s tone of moral superiority and separation from Allied forces
Allied Intransigence – Britain and France wanted compensation and revenge against Germany
Wilson against the Republican party

C. The Paris Peace Conference

The Big 4 – Lloyd George (Britain), Clemenceau (France), Vittorio Orlando (Italy), Wilson (US)
Idealism competing with national aggrandizement
Wilson indirectly helped White Russian forces against Bolsheviks, and refused to recognize new government until 1933
Wilson’s Retreat – economic & strategic demands constantly in conflict with principle of cultural nationalism
Reparations

Wilson initially opposed demanding compensation, but eventually accepted principle of reparations

1921 --> $56 Billion, 1930s --> became $9 million

crippled already weak economy

Successes

Imperial possessions in “trusteeship” under League of Nations

Blocked French proposal to break up Western Germany

League of Nations - jan 25 1919

D. The Ratification Battle

Wilson presented Treat of Versailles to senate on July 1919 --> Wilson’s Intransigence
Henry Cabot Lodge – powerful chairman of Foreign Relations Committee who hated the president and used very possible tactic to obstruct delay and amend the treaty
Wilson’s intransigence --> Senate would not budge --> appeal to the public

E. Wilson’s Ordeal

While on tour to arouse public support Wilson reached end of strength --> stroke --> impaired function and increased intransigence
League Membership Rejected
Public interest in peace process fading b/c of ratification fight & other crises

VI. A Society in Turmoil

New Social Environment –

post 1918 no longer receptive to progressive reform

severe post war economic recession

B. Industry and Labor

War ended sooner than anticipated --> nation needed to establish economic reconversion
1920 – disastrous inflation that killed market for consumer goods
Postwar Recession

Loss of jobs

Inflation wiped out modest wage gains

Employers rescinded benefits they had conceded in 1917-1918 --> strikes

Boston Police Strike – response to layoffs and wage cuts

Without police Boston --> violence & looting

Governor Calvin Coolidge called in National Guard --> officials dismissed entire police force & hired new one

Steelworkers Strike (Sept 1919) – eastern & Midwestern steelworkers walked off job demanding 8 hr work day & union recognition

Long, bitter, violent strike --> Riot in Gary, Indiana --> steel mill continued working with nonunion labor & public dissent --> Steelworkers’ Strike Defeated

C. The Demands of African Americans

New Black Attitudes

Accentuated African American bitterness

Increased determination to fight for rights

Chicago Race Riots (1919)

Black teenager swimming in Lake Michigan stoned by whites and drowned

Angry blacks retaliated in white neighborhoods

Larger white crowds attacked black neighborhoods

NAACP urged blacks to demand government protection AND fight back & defend themselves
Marcus Garvey’s Black Nationalism

Garvey encouraged African Americans to take pride in own achievements & develop awareness of heritage

Reject assimilation into white society

Pride in own superior race and culture

United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) – pressed for creation of black businesses

Leave America and return to Africa

D. The Red Scare

Russian Revolution 1917 --> communism no long theory = important regime
Formation of Communist International (Comintern) – export revolution around the world
American Communist Party 1919
Bombings --> Popular Antiradicalism
“100 Percent Americanism” --> Red Scare
Palmer Raids – Jan 1 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer & J. Edgar Hoover orchestrated raids on alleged radical centers & made many arrests

Did not fight huge caches of weapons and explosives

Most of arrested released

Sacco and Vanzetti (1920) – 2 Italian immigrants charged with murder of paymaster in Massachusetts

Convicted and sentenced to death under bigoted trail and injudicious circumstances

Supported for Sacco and Vanzetti increased but calls for retrial rejected

Aug 23, 1927 executed among international protest

E. The Retreat from Idealism

19th Amendment – Aug 26, 1920 – guaranteed women the right to vote
--> passage of Shepard Towner Maternity and Infancy Act 1921 – provided funds for supporting the health of women and infants
1922 Cable Act – granted women the rights of US citizenship independent of their husbands’ status
Election of 120

Republican Warren Gamaliel Harding offered no ideals only vague promise of return to “Normalcy”

Landslide victory --> new era

Chapter 21: The Rise of Progressivism

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I. The Progressive Impulse

Belief in Progress --> society capable of improvement & continued growth and advancement = nations destiny
Direct intervention in social and econ = essential for order and improved society

A. Varieties of Progressivism

“Antimonopoly” – fear of concentrated power and urge to limit/disperse authority & wealth

appealed to workers, farmers, and some middle class

helped empower gov to regulate or break up trusts (state & national)

Social Cohesion – belief that individuals are not autonomous, part of web of social relationships --> welfare of individual dependent on welfare of whole society

Concern w/ “victims” of industrialization --> initiatives & reforms attempting to help women, children, industrial workers, immigrants, African Americans (less)

Faith in Knowledge – possibilities of applying principles of natural & social science to society --> organization & efficiency

Social order = result of intelligent social organization & rational procedures

Knowledge = vehicle for equitable humane society

Modernized gov must play important role in process of stabilizing society

Need for new enhanced institutions of gov, leaders, experts

B. The Muckrakers

Muckrakers – crusading journalists directing public attention to social, econ, and political injustices (Theodore Roosevelt --> “raking up muck”)
At first major targets = trusts & railroads --> dangerously powerful, deeply corrupt
1860s Charles Francis Adams Jr uncovered corruption among railroad barons
Ida Tarbell & Lincoln Steffens

1904 published study of Standard Oil trust by Ida Tarbell

turn of cen --> muckrakers focus on gov (political machines)

Lincoln Steffens – reporter for McClure’s magazine who exposed machine gov and boss rule

Tone of studied moral outrage --> aroused sentiment for urban political reform

The Shame of the Cities

Muckrakers peak influence1900-1910
Investigated govs, labor unions, corporations
Explored problems of child labor, immigrant ghettoes, prostitution, family disorganization
Denounced waste & destruction of natural resources, subjugation of women, oppression of blacks (on occasion)
Helped inspire Americans to take action
Expressed basic progressive impulses

Opposition to monopoly

Belief in need for social unity among corruption & injustice

Efficiency & organization

C. The Social Gospel

Public outrage at injustice + social responsibility --> reformers committed to social justice
“Social Gospel”(early 20th cen) – powerful movement w/I American Protestantism concerned w/ redeeming nation’s cities
Salvation Army = fusion of religion & reform, Christian social welfare org offering material aid & spiritual service to urban poor
Many ministers, priests and rabbis left traditional parish work to serve in troubled cities
In His Steps (1898) Charles Sheldon --> most successful novel of era
Walter Rauschenbusch – Protestant theologian who published influential discourses on possibilities for human salvation through Christian reform

Message of Darwinism = cooperation to ensure humanitarian evolution

Father John Ryan

Rerum Novarum (1893 publication of Pope Leo XIII) --> rich were relying on poor almost like slaves

Worked to expand scope of Catholic welfare organizations

Social Gospel was never dominant element in movement for urban reform --> dismissed as irrelevant moralization
Brought progressive movement powerful moral component & commitment

Chapter 20 - Section Three - The Imperial Republic

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1. What is imperialism? What are the goals of imperialistic countries? Provide several examples of 19th century European imperialism and examples of how the United States engaged in imperialism.

Imperialism: territorial acquisition to extend a nations power
Ex. Imperial Britain (largest), France, Germany, Portugal, other European countries establishing colonies in Asia and Africa
U.S. engaged in imperialism after it acquired land from the Spanish-American war (1898)

2. Who wrote the book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890)?What influence did this book have? What ideas actually came to be?

Alfred Thayer Mahan published his thesis in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History
Countries with sea power were great nations in history
Prerequisites for naval power = productive domestic econ, foreign commerce, strong merchant marine, navy to defend trade routes, colonies
Advocated US construct a canal across Central America
1870s and 1880s gov launched shipbuilding program

3. Create a timeline which shows how the United States gained control over Hawaii.
4. Who was Queen Liliuokalani?

Queen Liliuokalani: strong nationalist who took the throne in 1891 and set out to challenge the growing American control of the islands
Only on throne for 2 yrs, 1890 US eliminated privileged position of Hawaiian sugar in international trade
Only way for islands to recover was to become part of U.S.

5. What was the motivation for the United States to want to help Cuba?

The destruction of the Maine was seen as an attack from Spain
Spanish minister insulted the President
The US was able to take the US holding of Puerto Rico and the Philippines and fain favor with Cuba

6. Who were Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst and what did they have to do with Yellow Journalism?

Joseph Pulitzer – Hungarian immigrant, Civ War vet, successful newspaper publisher in St. Louis --> bought NY World 1883‡ very successful
^ “Yellow Journalism” new tech possibilities, came to mean sensationalist style or reporting and writing
William Randolph Hearst imitator who bought New York Journal 1895
Used color even more lavishly than Pulitzer
Competition btw the two
Sensationalized coverage of the Maine and Spanish American War

7. Show your understanding of the concept of Yellow Journalism by creating a headline for a modern event that has the same characteristics of a Yellow Journalism style headline.
Bush may have CHEATED to win 2004 Election: Faulty Voting Machines or True Victory?!

8. Create a chart that shows how the following people were involved in the Spanish-American War; Jose Marti, Valeriano Weyler, Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, Dupuy de Lome, George Dewey, Theodore Roosevelt.
9. What happened at San Juan Hill?

Theodore Roosevelt charged San Juan Hill --> took control of important location near Santiago
Earned Roosevelt his reputation

10. Who were the Rough Riders?

Calvary unit led by Theodore Roosevelt --> made him into hero

11. Create a chart which shows what happened to the following places as a result of the Spanish-American War; Spain, Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Philippines.

12. What were the arguments of the Anti-Imperialist League?

Imperialism = immoral
Opposed concept of American freedom
Dislike of inferior races
Feared large standing armies
Dislike competition

13. Explain how the United States interfered in the affairs of independent Cuba and include specific reference to the Platt Amendment.

U.S. controlled military and occupied country
Supported the infrastructure schools, hospitals, roads, administration
Platt Amendment meant the Cuban Constitution required to give the US control over Cuba in terms of defense of Constitution

14. What was the attitude and actions of Filipinos toward the United States? Also, why did the U.S. want to control the Philippines anyway?

Resisted US control --> guerilla tactics
Reasons for control

returning islands to Spain = cowardly/dishonorable

turning islands over to another imperialist power = bad business/discreditable

independence for island = irresponsible

15. Why were the “doors” to China closed and why did the U.S. want them open?
• Closed:

Americans concerned about future of China ’ US had important trade w/ China

England, France, Germany, Russia, Japan had already pressured Chinese government ’ gave them control over various regions of China

• Open: US wanted to maintain trade w/ China

16. Who was John Hays and what did he write in his notes?
• John Hays: Secretary of State
• Translated McKinley “Open door statement” into policy --> “Open Door Notes”
• “Open Door Notes”: addressed identical messages to England, Germany, Russia, France, Japan, and Italy --> asked them to approved 3 principles
1) each nation w/ a sphere of influence in China was to respect the rights and
privileges of other nations in its sphere
2) Chinese officials were to continue to collect tariff duties in all spheres
3) nations were not to discriminate against other nations in levying port dues and
railroad rates w/in their own spheres

Would allow US to trade freely w/ Chinese w/out fear of interference and w/o having to become militarily involved in region

17. Who were the Boxers and why did they rebel?
• Boxers = a secret nationalist Chinese martial-arts society whose nationalist conviction lead them to rebel against foreigners

18. How did the Boxer Rebellion affect China - U.S. A. relations?
• Chinese territorial integrity survived at least in name
• US maintained access to trade

19. Explain (your opinion - based on facts) the significant ways that imperialism changed the United States as it entered the 20th century. Think about social, political, military, and economic considerations.

Transition into semi-imperialism allowed US to establish itself as global power

Impact and power of its economy and trade markets

Formation of a more powerful and organized army/navy ‡ Military power

Enforced beliefs of white supremacy
Revealed need for a stronger central government

20. Knowing what you know about the United States in the later part of the 19th century, what areas of American society do you anticipate would need to be improved as the United States “progressed” into the 20th century?

ECONOMIC STABILITY!
Redefined foreign policy
Stronger central government
Organized military
Focus on internal improvements rather than external expansion

Chapter 19 - Section Two - From Stalemate to Crisis

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1. Who was Charles Darwin? Explain fully. (pages 514-516)

English naturalist who developed the Theory of natural selection and evolution
His ideas caused a schism btw city cultural and rural culture

2. What was Social Darwinism? (516)

Application of Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human society
William Graham Sumner and industrialized used it as an excuse for their place in life
Some are not fit enough to achieve certain goals, thus the fittest survive in the business world and society

3. What was “Pragmatism”? (516)

William James most prominent publicist of new theory (Charles S. Peirce, John Dewey)
Modern society should rely for guidance on the test of scientific inquiry
No idea or institution was valid unless it stood the test of experience

4. Make a list of the people mentioned on page 516-517 and briefly explain what they did, wrote, or started.
Charles Darwin: English naturalist who developed the theory of natural selection and evolution
William Graham Sumner used social Darwinism to justify their position in American life
William James a Harvard psychologist who was most prominent publicist of Pragmatism
Charles S. Peirce – early pragmatism intellectual
John Dewey – later pragmatism intellectual, proposed new approach to education that enabled students to acquire knowledge that would help them deal with the realities of society
Richard T. Ely & Simon Pattern economists who argued for a more active and pragmatic use of scientific discipline
Edward A. Ross & Lester Frank Ward sociologists who urged applying scientific method to the solution of social and political problems
Frederick Jackson Turner & Charles Beard historians who argued that economic factors more than spiritual ideals had been the governing force in historical development
Richard Henry Pratt (1897) organized Carlisle Indian Industrial School, emphasized practical industrial education, forced assimilation, project failed

5. Read through the first part of chapter 19. This information is important but covers a wide variety of topics. Take your own notes on pages 522-524.
I. The Politics of Equilibrium
A. The Party System

Electoral Stability

Recon --> 1890s electorate divided evenly btw Rep and Demo

High Turnout due to intense public loyalty, mass based politics

Loyalty to demo in south b/c demo = vehicle by which they preserved white supremacy

Loyalty to Rep in north b/c Lincoln and Civil War, against slavery and treason

Catholic, recent immigrants, poorer workers --> Democrat

Northern Protestants, middle class --> Republican

Republicans --> support restricted immigration, temperance
Party identification was more reflection of cultural inclinations than economic interest

B. The National Government

National government was responsible for delivering mail, maintaining national military, foreign policy, collecting tariffs and taxes
Late 19th cen supported capitalists (subsidies, military use during strikes)
Civil War Pension system – (early 20th cen) fed gov administered system of annual pensions for Union Civ War vets

Some reformers tried to make it permanent, failed b/c system was corrupt

“Good Gov” believers wanted to elimination pensions system to fight graft, corruption, and party rule

when civil war gen died pension system died

late 19th cen US had no modern national gov
Political parties = most powerful national political institutions

C. Presidents and Patronage

Power of party bosses had important effect on pres power
Presidents had very little power except to distribute government appnts

Tried to avoid offending factions

Rutherford B. Hayes Presidency (1877-1881)

Stalwarts (Roscoe Conkling) and Half-Breeds (James G. Blaine) competing for control of the Rep party

Hayes tried to satisfy both parties but satisfied neither

Garfield Assassinations

oHe began his presidency by trying to defy the Stalwarts in his appointments and by showing support for civil service reform

July 2, 1881, shot twice, eventually died

Succeeded by Chester A. Arthur, followed independent course to promote reform

1883 Congress passed the first national civil serviece measure, Pendleton Act

D. Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

1884 election --> Rep Sen James G. Blaine
“liberal republicans/ mugwumps” wanted to support an honest demo
Demos nominate Grover Cleveland – no different than Blaine but had reputation as enemy of corruption
Cleveland narrowly won because of Catholic support after demos spread news that Blaine tolerated a slander on the Catholic Church
Dec 1887 Cleveland asked congress to reduce the tariff rates --> deadlock & issue in election of 1888
Most corrupt elections --> Benjamin Harrison’s Election

6. What was the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and why was it created? When? (524-525)

Passed in mid 1880s to stop large corporate trusts
Symbol to gain poor favor and not hurt business partners
Ultimately ineffective

7. Describe and explain the cartoon on the top of page 526.

America is bound by McKinley Tariff ‡ considered a monopoly
US bound by protective tariffs to protect interests, but people are suffering due t higher princes
Message: Tariffs should be used to make money, not restrict imports

8. What was the Interstate Commerce Act and who did it affect? (527)

Interstate Commerce Act: forced railroad regulation, banned discrimination in rates btw long and short hauls, publish their rate schedules
Randomly enforced and strict on certain people

9. Read all about the Grangers and The Farmer's Alliances and write your own notes explaining why these groups were created, who were their leaders, and what affect they had. (527-529)
I. The Agrarian Revolt

Populism emerged from rural farmers realizing problems of the modern econ & the desire for government assistance

A. The Grangers

1860s The Grange: first major farm organization‡self-help association
Depression of 1873 turned it into agency of political change
Origins
Founded by Oliver H. Kelley --> appalled by isolation and drabness of rural life

At first aimed to bring farmers together to learn new scientific agricultural techniques

Wanted to create feeling of community

Membership increased after depression of 1873

Increase in membership ‡ focus less on social benefits more on economic possibilities
Attempted to organize marketing cooperatives (avoid middleman)
Urged Co-op political action to avoid railroad and warehouse monopoly

Montgomery Ward and Company 1872: 1st mail-order business

Most Granger enterprises failed b/c inexperienced operations and middleman opposition

July 4 1873 “The Farmer’s Declaration of Independence”

Lawful and peaceful means to escape unfair monopolies

Political Program

Worked to elect state legislators pledged to their program

Operated through existing parties or independent parties (“Antimonopoly” “Reform”)

Purpose: subject railroads to gov controls

Granger Laws 1870s --> strict regulation of railroads

Decline

New regulations destroyed by courts

Political inexperience of Granger leaders

Temporary return of agricultural prosperity late 1870s

-->Decline in Granger association power

B. The Farmers’ Alliances

Succeeded the Grange as leading vehicle of agrarian protest
Southern alliance (Texas) 1875, Northwestern Alliance (Midwest)
Primary concern = local problems
Formed cooperatives & marketing mechanisms
Goal: build a society where economic cooperation > competition

Mutual responsibility to resist oppressive forces

Promoted cooperation as alternative economic system

Women = prominent role --> full voting members

Mary E. Lease --> would be come fiery Populist orator

Temperance = key to stability in rural society

Suffered from same problems as grangers --> new phase 1880s creation of national political organization
1889 merger of Southern and Northwester Alliances

Oscala Demands: party platform

3rd party formation --> The People’s Party (Populists) July 1892
election 1892 showed potential power of Populist movement

10. Why did the People's Party start? Who started it? (530-531)

People’s Party formed from the merger of the North Western and Southern Farmers Alliances
Tom Watson (S) & Leonidas Polk (N)

11. What was the political platform (ideas) of the Populists? (531-532)

Supported unindustrialized farmers that had no chance of competing with mechanized work w/o political intervention
Set up network of warehouses and make crops valuable collateral
Ban national banks
Stronger influence of citizens
End of absentee ownership of land
Direct election of US senators
Government regulation
Silver money
Progress and growth should be strictly defined by the needs of individuals and communities

12. Who wanted silver backed money (532) and who wanted gold backed money (537)?What difference did it make?

Silver money: populists, silver miners, debtors
Gold money: Business owners, successful farmers, politicians, bankers, Jews

13. What caused the economic panic of 1893 and what impact did it have? (534-535)

Cause: Philadelphia and Reading Railroads and National Cordage Company failed --> brought down banks tied to them and the whole stock market
Effect: food prices collapsed, businesses failed, foreign investors pulled out

14. Who was Jacob Coxey and what did he want? (536)

Jacob Coxey: Ohio business man and Populist
Proposed public works to generate jobs for the unemployed

15. What was the Crime of '73? and who wanted to undo it? Why?

Crime of ’73: involved the value of silver dropping and loss of interest of silver coinage
Silver miners wanted the government to by the silver above the market value ‡ mint it to make $$$
Farmers wanted silver money to make easy payments

16. Who was William Jennings Bryan and what did he say about a Cross of Gold?(537-538) Why did he have his own cult following? (532)

William Jennings Bryan: Nebraska congressman who was pro silver
Believed gold standard oppressed the working man
Democrats --> Pro-silver and collected all of the populist votes

19. What was the political background of William McKinley? What were his campaign issues in 1896 and why did he win?

William McKinley: governor of Ohio, member of congress who authored 1890 tariff, Republican presidential candidate 1896 election
Opposed free silver except by agreement with the leading commercial nations (unlikely)
Bryan lost support by violating traditional campaigning

20. What was McKinley's plan to get the country out of the depression and how did the Currency Act help? (539-540)

McKinley was committed to the need for higher tariff rates
Currency/ Gold Standard Act of 1900 – confirmed the nations commitment to the gold standard by assigning a specific gold value to the $ and required all currency issued by the US to hew to that value
Meant to stabilize the money supply

21. Create a Presidential Timeline from Grant to McKinley. For each President, include dates of office, party affiliation, and at least one significant event.

22. Explain what McKinley is doing in the cartoon on page 542. What is happening to Uncle Sam?

McKinley is measuring the US to accommodate the new possessions the US obtained in the aftermath of the Spanish-American war
The US (Uncle Sam) is getting larger and foreign policy is getting less and less important

Chapter 18 – Section One - The Age of the City

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1. Explain the various migrations to American cities after the Civil War, describing the who, when, where, and reasons why people were migrating. (490-492)

Young rural women: left declining agricultural areas of rural America in late 19th century b/c farming had become male dominant and clothes and goods now mass produced by department stores/catalogs
Southern Blacks: poverty, debt, violence, and oppression in late 19th cen limited jobs is city (books, janitors, domestics, low paying etc) --> black women > men
Immigrants: Germans and educated Europeans ‡ west for farming or business,
Irish/Uneducated: too poor to buy farm land and lacked education ‡ settled in industrial cities for unskilled labor jobs

2. Explain the two concepts below and how they affected immigrants. (495-496)
1. Assimilation

Americanization --> adopting American culture and breaking with old ethnic traditions
Assimilation put strain on relationships btw men and women

Ethnic culture = subordinate women, US = less subordinate women

Out of necessity women began working out of home developing outside attachments

Native born Americans encouraged assimilation

Public schools taught English

Employers insisted workers SPEAK English

Many American products in stores

Leaders = native born/ assimilated immigrants ‡ encouraged other immigrants to adopt American ways

2. Exclusion

Nativism --> fear and resentment among native borns towards immigrants out of their fears and prejudice of the foreigners
Henry Bowers (1887) – lawyer obsessed with a hatred of Catholics and foreigners --> formation of American Protective Association
American Protective Association: group committed to stopping the immigrant tide
Immigration Restriction League (1894) – dedicated to belief that immigrants should be screened, through literacy tests and other standards designed to separate the desirable from the undesirable
1882 Congress --> Chinese exclusion act, other laws prevented “undesirables” from entering and placed tax on each person admitted
1890s restriction list expanded and tax raised
restrictions had limited success b/c many native borns welcomed immigration b/c it provided cheap and plentiful labor supply

3. Who were Frederick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux? (497)

Fredrick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux (1850s): landscape designers who teamed up to design New York’s Central park

Public space that wouldn’t look like the city --> natural space

Success of Central Park --> designers commissioned in other cities

4. Describe the event that took place in Chicago in 1893 and explain its importance. (498)

1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago: world’s fair constructed to honor 400th anniversary of Columbus’s 1st voyage to America
“Great White City”- cluster of neoclassical buildings that became the inspiration for the “City Beautiful Movement”

5. What was the “City Beautiful Movement”? (498)

lead by architect of Great White City --> Daniel Burnham
aimed to impose a similar order and symmetry on the disorder life of cities around the country
no reconstructions of American cities matching those of European cities

6. What was created in Boston in the late 1850's and why was this important? (498)

Black Bay – (Boston late 1850s) marshy land filled in to create neighborhood, over 40 years to complete = one of largest public projects at the time
Annexations to expand boundaries of American cities 1890s -->

7. Create a chart that describes and compares the living conditions of well-to-do, workers, and poor in urban America after the Civil War. (498-499)

Well-to-Do

Housing seldom a worry
Cost of building in late 19th century let anyone with even moderate income afford a house
Mansions at heart of the city, “fashionable districts”
Moderately well-to-do took advantage of less expensive land on city edge --> growth of suburbs

Workers & Poor

Could not afford either a house or city or suburbs
Stayed in city centers and rented
Landlords squeezed as many paying people in to as little space as possible
Tenements --> slum dwellings

8. Who was Jacob Riis and what did he do? (499-500)

Jacob Riis (1890): Danish immigrant and New York newspaper reporter and photographer who wrote How the Other Half Lives
Book contained pictures and descriptions of tenement life
Solution = raze slum dwellings w/o building replacement housing

9. Make a list of problems that were common in America's cities. (500-503)

Transportation Problems

Terrible street conditions (too narrow, unpaved)

Need for MASS TRANSPORTATION b/c huge amounts of ppl

Fire & Disease
Environmental Degradation

Improper disposal of human and industrial waste --> pollution of rivers and lakes

Large numbers of unclean animals

Air pollution from factories

Urban Poverty
Crime & Violence

Rise in murder (southern lynching and homicide)

Instability in western communities

10. Explain how the mass transit and skyscrapers were developed in cities. (500-501)

Mass Transit: need for faster mass transportation --> elevated railway, cable cars, electric trolley, subway, bridges
Skyscraper: development of steel-girder construction made tall building possible

11. What happened in Chicago, Boston, Baltimore, and San Francisco between 1871-1906? (501)

The large cities suffered from “great fires”
Fires encouraged the building of fireproof buildings

12. Read about the Machine and the Boss and take notes that describe the details of how this system operated. (503-504)

Boss Rule: any politician who could mobilize voting power of large immigrant population gained enormous influence
All were men
Function of political boss = win votes for his organization

Win loyalty of his constituents (supplies, saving one from jail, finding jobs, etc)

Patronage – jobs in city gov w/ opportunities to rise in political organization

Graft and Corruption --> machines = vehicles for making $$

Honest grafts & covert grafts

William M. Tweed boss of NYC’s Tammany Hall 1860s &1870s

Modernized city infrastructures

Expanding role of gov

Stability in political and social climate

Reasons for Boss Rule

1. power of immigrant voters who were less concerned w/ middle class ideas of political morality

2. Link btw political organizations & wealthy citizens who profited from boss relations

3. Structural weakness of city gov ‡ boss formed “invisible gov” with lots of control

Competition

Reform groups mobilized public outrage

Reform organizations lacked permanence of machine

Civil War Essay Questions

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1. How did economic and political factors help cause the south to lose the Civil War?
The South’s economic and political inferiority compared to the North, caused it to lose the American Civil War. The North had superior manpower and resources. The Northern Union had a population of 22,000,000 compared to the 9,000,000 of the South. Furthermore, of those nine million, 3,500,000 were slaves whom the South would not arm due to the fear of slave revolt. The greater population of the North allowed them to have a greater body from which to draw their armies (despite the fact that enlistment percentage was lower in the North than the South). In fact, in 164 the government faced such a critical manpower shortage that it began drafting men as young as 17 and as old as 50. In addition, the Union controlled most the resources of the United States. Northern monopolized industries allowed the Union to become fully self-sufficient and manufacture its own supplies. The Confederacy, on the other hand, had few industrial outputs and had to therefore rely on foreign imports. The transportation systems within the North also surpassed those of the South. There was two times more railroad track, more canals, and better roads in the North. The lack of efficient transportation within the South hampered the Confederate army’s ability to mobilize quickly and obtain supplies. The fewer shipyards of the South also hindered its ability to transport and receive goods.

Economic factors also worked against the South. The Confederacy worked off the doctrine of individual States’ Rights, which often times interfered with the greater good of the Confederacy. An example of this is Joseph Brown (Georgia) and Zebulon M. Vance’s (North Carolina) hoarding of supplies for their own troops. Other examples include Davis’ inability to impose martial law, suspend habeas corpus, and conscription. President Davis’s leadership was also somewhat lacking. Although he was an able administrator he rarely provided genuinely national leadership. Such economic and political factors lead to the inevitable defeat of the South.

2. What was the turning point for the Union army in the Civil War?
July of 1863 marked the turning point for the Union in the Civil war. Just days apart from one another, the Confederacy was defeated at Vicksburg and Gettysburg. The Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi was important because it controlled the Mississippi River. Without having control of it, the Confederacy was divided and unable to supply Texas and Arkansas. This diminished the war effort in the eastern United States. Vicksburg was the key to the success of the North, and when it was surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant on July 4, 1863 the Confederacy began is plummet.

July 3, 1863 marked Robert E. Lee’s defeat at Gettysburg. It was the first major defeat suffered by General Lee. The battle was also the only time the Confederacy was able to gather such a number of troops and make an attack on the North. Gettysburg severely weakened Southern forces and destroyed their morale. The combination of the defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg set the stage for a declining war effort from the south and the future end at Appomattox Court House.

3. Explain why and how the North won the war. Include people, places, dates, resources, and technology.
The North’s superior manpower, resources, and leadership caused it to win the Civil War. The Northern Union had a population of 22,000,000 compared to the 9,000,000 of the South. Furthermore, of those nine million, 3,500,000 were slaves whom the South would not arm due to the fear of slave revolt. The greater population of the North allowed them to have a greater body from which to draw their armies (despite the fact that enlistment percentage was lower in the North than the South). In fact, in 164 the government faced such a critical manpower shortage that it began drafting men as young as 17 and as old as 50. In addition, the Union controlled most the resources of the United States. Northern monopolized industries allowed the Union to become fully self-sufficient and manufacture its own supplies. The Confederacy, on the other hand, had few industrial outputs and had to therefore rely on foreign imports. The transportation systems within the North also surpassed those of the South. There was two times more railroad track, more canals, and better roads in the North. The lack of efficient transportation within the South hampered the Confederate army’s ability to mobilize quickly and obtain supplies. The fewer shipyards of the South also hindered its ability to transport and receive goods.

President Lincoln led the Union resolutely, with his focus on the preservation of the Union. Although he went through several incompetent generals, he finally found success in Ulysses S. Grant. Both Lincoln and granted shared the idea of a war that involved the destruction of resources. Grant’s leadership and the leadership of other important generals resulted in winning many critical battles, specifically, the Confederacy’s defeat at Vicksburg and Gettysburg. The Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi was important because it controlled the Mississippi River. Without having control of it, the Confederacy was divided and unable to supply Texas and Arkansas. This diminished the war effort in the eastern United States. Vicksburg was the key to the success of the North, and when it was surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant on July 4, 1863 the Confederacy began is plummet. July 3, 1863 marked Robert E. Lee’s defeat at Gettysburg. It was the first major defeat suffered by General Lee. The battle was also the only time the Confederacy was able to gather such a number of troops and make an attack on the North. Gettysburg severely weakened Southern forces and destroyed their morale.

The South’s inferior resources and unstable central government caused it to suffer greatly in war. The North’s use of technology, resources, and political power made it a powerful force that led to Union victory in the Civil War.

4. Explain how Lincoln both succeeded and failed as President.
As a President, Abraham Lincoln was both successful and unsuccessful. He helped preserve the Union of the United States by defeating the Confederacy in the Civil War. During the war his strong leadership skills were evident as he was able to mobilize the Northern war effort. Although he had to deal with many incompetent generals, he quickly criticized and removed them, replacing them with better-suited candidates. His appointment of Ulysses S. Grant greatly changed the war and the strength of the Northern military force. Lincoln understood the importance of debilitating the enemy’s resources and thus changed the characteristics of warfare. No longer were the enemy soldiers the target, but also their resources and transportation systems. Lincoln’s leadership was also apparent in foreign affairs, which caused both Britain and France (who may have supported the Confederacy) to remain neutral in the war. Within his own political party he was also able to quell the factions and maintain power. Speeches, such as the Gettysburg address, encouraged the Union and promoted the war effort. His ability to rally public opinion greatly affected the morale and success of the North. Finally, Lincoln also abolished slavery through his Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and the Thirteenth Amendment (1865).

However, Lincoln was unsuccessful in many aspects of his presidency. Firstly, he abused the war powers of presidency, disregarding portions of the Constitution. He sent troops into battle without asking Congress for a declaration of war, increased the size of the regular army without receiving legislative authority to do so, and unilaterally proclaimed a naval blockade of the South. He also went to extraordinary lengths to repress all opposing factions within the Union. He ordered military arrests of civilian dissenters and suspended the right of habeas corpus. In 1862 he proclaimed that all dissidents would be subject to martial law. He overstepped all the bounds of the judicial and legislative branch, defying all efforts to curb his authority to suppress the opposition. In a way Lincoln had defied many of the fundamental principles of the United States.

Chapter 12 Chart

2007-02-13T15:36:00.000-08:00

Chapter 12 Study Questions - Antebellum Culture and Reform

2007-02-13T15:18:00.000-08:00

1. What does the term antebellum mean? (315-316)

Antebellum: before war

2. How was the concept of nationalism expressed in American art? (316)

Portrayed images of the American frontier/landscapes
Unlike in Europe, “wild” nature still existed in America > America was a nation of greater promise than Old World

3. What is romanticism and how was it expressed in the United States? (316)

Romanism: belief that within every individual resides an innately good spirit and that society should attempt to liberate the human spirit
Expressed in: literature, philosophy, art, politics, economics

4. What does Brinkley mean by the phrase, “The Quest for Liberation”? (316)

Create distinctly American literature
Find ways of self expression through writing = romanticism
Writing that characterized the spirit of individualism (Whitman)

5. What is transcendentalism and who were the transcendentalists? (318-319)

Transcendentalism: idea that in determining the ultimate reality of God, the universe, the self, and other important matters, one must transcend, or go beyond, everyday human experience in the physical world
Liberation of “understanding”(intellect as used by society) and cultivation of “reason” (individual’s innate capacity to grasp beauty and truth through giving full expression to the instincts and emotions)
Transcendentalists: New Eng. Writers and philosophers

Ralph Waldo Emmerson

Henry David Thoreau

6. Explain the concept of utopia and how this idea was important in early America. (319-320)

Utopia: a more perfect society; full opportunity for self-realization
Brook Farm (1841-1847): most famous 19th cen. Experiment of communal living

Leisure = good, opportunity for self realization

Manual labor bridged gate btw world of intellect and learning

Gave way to a form of socialism > residents = disenchanted

Vision inspired and enchanted Americans

7. List the characteristics of both the Shakers and Mormons. (321-322)

Shakers

Founded by “Mother” Ann Lee (1770s)

Commitment to complete celibacy

Women > Men

Lived in conditions with limited opposite gender contact

Endorsed idea of sexual equality

Male or Female God

Women exercised most power

Create society separate and protected from chaos and disorder of Amer. life

Mormons

Founded by Joseph Smith

1830 Book of Mormon

Ancient & successful civilization in Amer > natives = remnants

1831 small group of believers search for sanctuary for now community of “saints” (New Jerusalem”

Polygamy

Belief in human perfectibility

Did NOT embrace doctrine of individual liberty

Centrally directed social structure

Structure of family

Baptism ceremony in the name of a deceased ancestor

Interest in genealogy

Men and women who felt displaced in rapidly changing society

1844 Smith arrested, killed by mob in jail

Establishment of Salt Lake City (Brigham Young)

8. Why was Joseph Smith and his followers forced to leave the areas they tried to settle? (321)

Persecution from surrounding communities suspicious of their radical religious doctrines (polygamy)

9. Who was Brigham Young and what did he do? (321-322)

Smith’s successor
Establishment of Salt Lake

10. Explain Protestant revivalism. (323)

Began w/ 2nd Great Awaking and evolved into a powerful force for social reform
Belief that very individual was capable of salvation
People came to believe that every individual was capable of salvation (and a revival of faith could come from individuals, not necessarily god)

11. What is Finney's Doctrine of Personal Regeneration? (323)

Rochester, NY: Charles Grandison Finney staged a series of emotionally wrenching religious meetings that aroused a large segment of the community; call for crusade against personal immorality

12. Define temperance and explain why it was an issue in early America. (323-324)

Temperance: abstinence from alcohol
Responsible for crime, disorder and poverty
Supply & appetite of alcohol growing rapidly
American Society for the Promotion of Temperance
Cultural Divisions over Alcohol (Protestants vs. Catholics)

13. What is cholera and why was it a problem? (324-325)

Cholera: severe bacterial infection of the intestines, usually a result of consuming contaminated food or water
Fewer than half of afflicted survived, thousands died during outbreaks

14. Define phrenology and its impact on American ideas for improving society. (325-326)

Phrenology: shape on individual's skull was an important indicator of character and intelligence
Thought it provided way of measuring an individual’s fitness for various positions in life and seemed to promise an end to the arbitrary process by which people matched their talents to occupations and responsibilities

15. Make a list of improvements in medicine. (326)

Smallpox vaccination – Edward Jenner
Anesthetics – William Morton
Discovery of Contagion – Oliver Wendell Homes

16. Make a list of educational reforms. (326-327)

Lengthened academic year to six months
Doubled teachers’ salaries
Enriched the curriculum
Introduced new methods of professional training for teachers
Building of new schools
Creation of teachers’ colleges
New groups of children had access to education

17. What was the Asylum Movement? (327)

Advocated prison and hospital reform
New penitentiaries and mental institutions designed to provide a proper environment for inmates
Imprisonment of debtors and paupers gradually disappeared as well as hangings
Attempt to reform and rehabilitate the inmates

18. Explain the new “reform” approach to the problems of Native Americans. (328)

Reservations: idea of creating an enclosed region in which Indians would live in isolation from white society
Moved natives out of good lands that whites wanted
Could learn ways of civilization in protected setting

19. What is feminism and why was it important to early America? (329)

Feminism: avocation of equal female rights and sexual equality
Challenged previous social structure
Socialist ideas incorporated into society

20. What happened at Seneca Falls? (329)

Mott, Stanton, Anthony & Co, organized a conventions in Seneca Falls NY (1848) to discuss the question of women’s rights
“Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” – women = men
Demand for women’s suffrage

21. Create a chart that shows the ways that shows the successes and failures of the abolitionist movement. (330-336)
23. What was the Amistad case? (336)

1839 Africans destined for slavery in Cuba seized the ship from crew and tired to return to Africa
John Quincy Adams argued on behalf of Abolitionists at Supreme Court
Court declared Africans free in 1841

22. How did the abolitionist movement galvanize the northern states and also contribute to the growing schism between the north and south states? (330-336)

many reforms succeeded at the state level in the Northern/Western states but had little impact on many areas of the South
Northerners worked to perfect their own society through change; southerners committed to tradition

South depended on slaves for agricultural economy; North = not dependent upon slaves

South --> alarmed to see northern reformers join forces to support antislavery movement; viewed social reform as a northern conspiracy against the southern way of life

Chapter 11 Study Questions - Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South

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1. List the crops that were grown in the southern United States. (294)

Sugar
Rice
Tobacco
Cotton
Wheat

2. Why was cotton in so much demand and how did this demand affect agriculture in the south? (294-295)

Demand

Growth of textile industry in Britain (1820s-1830s) and New England (1840s-1850s)

Decline of Tobacco Economy

Short-Staple Cotton: hardier coarser cotton successful in many climates

Effects

“Cotton is King” – cotton = 2/3 of export trade; $200 million a year

“Cotton Kingdom” = deep South

Rush to this area, prospect of huge profits

Expansion of Slavery

3. Explain the relationship between the expansion of cotton production and the expansion of slavery. (295)

Expansion of Slavery: slaves accompanied masters, migrated themselves, or sold to planters already there-
Sale of slaves to South W became an important economic activity in the upper South crops

Helped the troubled planters compensate for the declining value of crops

4. List the reasons why the south did not develop as much industry as the north. (295-298)

Industry remained an insignificant force in comparison with the agricultural economy
Weak Manufacturing sector: served needs of plantation economy
Inadequate Regional Transportation System

No canals

Crude unsuitable roads

Railroads did not connect regions

Economic Subordination to North

5. What was De Bow's Review and why was it significant? (297-298)

De Bow’s Review (1846) : James B. D. De Bow (New Orleans) published magazine

Advocated southern commercial and agricultural expansion

Stressed southern economic independence for the North

Warned about constant dangers of “colonial” relationships btw sections

Evidence of the dependency of the South on the North

Printed in New York (New Orleans = inadequate facilities)

Filled with northern manufacturing advertisements

Northern publications > southern publications

6. Make a chart that lists the characteristics and ideals of the southern planter class compared to the plain folk of the south. (298-303)

7. Why is slavery called that “peculiar institution”? (303)

Slavery was a special distinction of South

Few places were slavery still existed

Isolated South from rest of Amer. society

As isolation ^ -> commitment to defend institution ^
Isolated blacks from whites -> racial line

8. Explain the laws and restrictions regarding slavery. (303-304)

Slavery was an institution establish and regulated in detail by law
Slave codes

Forbade slaves to own property

Forbade slaves to leave masters’ premises w/o permission

Forbade slaves to be out after dark

Forbade slaves to congregate w/ other slaves (excluding church)

Forbade slaves to carry firearms

Forbade slaves to strike white person (even in self defense)

Whites prohibited to teach slaves to read & write

Denied slaves right to testify in court against white people

No provisions to legalize slave marriage/divorce

Not crime if white killed slave

Slaves faced death penalty for killing/resisting white or inciting revolt

Anyone w/ African ancestry defined as Black
Enforcement of codes spotty and uneven

9. What was life like for plantation slaves in the United States? (304-307)

Generally received enough necessities to live & work

Adequate diet (cornmeal, salt pork, molasses)

Cheap clothing & shoes

Lived in crude cabins (slave quarters)

Plantation mistress or Dr. provided some medical care

Slave women could be “healers” & midwives

Worked hard

Light tasks as children

Longest workdays during harvest

Slave women – cooking, cleaning, child rearing

High Slave Mortality Rates

Enforced poverty

Less healthy than whites

Economic incentives to maintain healthy slave pop.
House slaves

Lived close to master & family

Easier jobs

Often resented isolation from other slaves

Lack of privacy (transgressions more visible>more punishments)

Females vulnerable to sexual abuse

10. Explain what life was like for urban slaves. (307)

Master could not supervised slave closely
Gained numerous opportunities to mingle w/ free blacks & whites
Line btw slavery and freedom became increasingly indistinct
Worked in mining, lumbering, construction, wagon driving, textile mills, carpentry, blacksmith, unskilled jobs
Black women > Black men (slaves owners sold off males in fear of conspiracy)
Slavery in cities declining; Forced Segregation of urban blacks (free & slave)

Means of social control intended to make up for loosening discipline of slavery in urban areas

11. What were “free African Americans” and how did slavery affect their lives? (307-308)

Free African Americans:
Slaves who earned $ to buy freedom -> developed a skill
Set free by master w/ moral qualms about slavery
Set free by master’s will after death
Tightened Restrictions on Free Blacks after Nat Turner’s revolt
Feared that unsupervised by whites, free blacks might generate more violence and rebellion than slaves
Community of free blacks in southern cities becoming larger & more threatening
Rise of abolitionist agitation in North
New laws made it nearly impossible for owners to free slaves (manumit)
All southern states restricted free African Americans from entering
Few free black slaves attained wealth and prominence
Most free blacks lived in poverty (quasi-free)

12. How did the domestic and foreign slave trade operate? (308)

Domestic

Professional slave traders

Transported over long distances by train, river, ocean steamers

Transported over short distances by foot along highways

Arrived at central market; purchasers gather to bid

Essential to growth and prosperity of whole system

Dehumanized all who were involved

Separated families

Foreign

As bad or worse as domestic slave trade

Federal law prohibited importation of slaves (1808)

Smuggled slaves

Delegates from upper south (profited from domestic trade) opposed foreign comp.

13. Make a list of the reasons and methods of slave resistance. (308-310)

Reasons

Yearned for freedom

Unhappy w/ slavery conditions

Methods (combination of adaptation & resistance)

1) “Sambo” – deferential slave who acted out the role that recognized the white world expected of him (façade)

2) Slave rebel – African Amer. Who could not bring self to either acceptance or accommodation, remained forever rebellious

Running away

Refusal to work hard

Isolated acts of sabotage

Slave religion, language, music

12. List the causes and outcomes of the slave rebellions. (309-310)

Prosser Rebellion (1800): Gabriel Prosser gather 100 rebellious slaves outside of Richmond

2 Africans gave away plot

Virginia militia stopped uprising before it could begin

Prosser & 35 others executed

1822 Denmark Vesey and 9000 followers prepared for revolt

word leaked out

suppression and retribution

Turner Rebellion (1831): Nat Turner led band of armed Af. Amer. In Southampton County, VA

Went from house to house; killed 60

Overpowered by state and federal troops

100+ executed

Fear of slave conspiracies and renewed violence pervaded as long as slavery lasted

13. Explain the ways that slaves developed their own culture and how this culture enabled them to sustain a sense of racial pride and unity. Include ideas about language, music, and religion. (310-311)

Language

Retained own language(incorporating African speech patterns into Eng)

Simple common language – Pidgin

Music

Important in slave society

Relied on rhythm, accompanied w/ dance, sang in fields

Emotionally rich and politically challenging music made in religious services

Expressed religious faith, expressed hope for freedom

Religion

Own version of Christianity w/ Af. Practices

Prayer meetings = fervent chanting, exclamations, conversion experiences

Joyful and affirming

Emphasized dream of freedom and deliverance

14. List the characteristics and challenges of family life for slaves. (312)

Characteristics

Black women began bearing children earlier

Slave communities did not condemn premarital pregnancy

Couples would live together before marriage

Marriage ceremony after conceiving child

Strong family ties

Kinship networks: compensated for separated families, “adopted”

Harsh paternal relationship between slaves and masters

Challenges

Legal restrictions

No legal marriage

Separated from families

Paternal Nature of Slavery = instrument of white control

Chapter 10 Study Questions: America’s Economic Revolution

2007-02-10T14:40:00.000-08:00

1. List reasons why the Us. population increased from 1820-1840. (260-261)

2. Explain the rise in immigration from 1840-1860. (260-261)

3. Define Nativism and explain its significance. (263)

4. Describe the membership and platform (political ideas) of the Native-American and Know Nothings political parties. (264-265)

5. How are canals constructed and how do they function? (266-267)

6. Understand the when, where, how, why of the Erie Canal? (267)

7. Describe the features of early railroads. (268-269)

8. What factors enabled railroads to become the preferred mode of transportation. (269-270)

9. Explain the invention of the telegraph. Understand why this was significant. (270)

10. Define the concepts of “market economy” and “corporation.” (271-270)

11. When and where did the first major factories emerge in the United States? What is the significance of their locations? (272-273)

12. What is merchant capitalism and why did it decline in the middle of the 1800s? (274)

13. Explain how early factories found workers. (275-276)

(1820s-1830s) factory labor from native population
(1840s) Immigrant population = new source of labor/workers
2 Systems of Recruitment

1) Brought whole families to mill (Mid-Atlantic)

2) Lowell/Waltham system: enlisted young women (Massachusetts)

Relied on young unmarried women

14. What was the Lowell System and what happened to it? (276-277)

Lowell System: enlisted primarily young unmarried women to work in factories

Lived in clean boardinghouses and dormitories

Fed and carefully supervised

Strict curfews & regular church attendance; dismissed women w/ immoral conduct

Wages low but generous by standards of the time

Decline: difficult to maintain high living standards & working conditions

Wages declined, hours lengthened, conditions worse, overcrowding ^

Mill girls moving to other jobs: teaching, domestic, marriage

Manufactures turning to immigrant labor

Factory Girls Association (1834): strikes

Female Labor Reform Association (Sarah Bagley)

14. Describe the emergence of trade unions. (277-278)

(19th century) craftsmen form organizations against competition of industrial capitalists
Philly, Baltimore, Boston, NY: skilled workers of each craft formed societies for mutual aid
(1820s-1830s) Craft societies combine to from trade union
National Trades’ Union (1834)- founded by delegates from 6 cities
Early unions fared poorly; Panic of 1837 > weakened movement
Early failure did not end workers efforts to gain control over productive lives
Commonwealth v. Hunt: unions were lawful organizations and that strike = lawful weapon

15. Explain how the industrialization of the United States led to the formation of a “rich get richer and the poor get poorer” society. (279-280)

Industrial Revolution -> ^ $, making society more unequal, changing social relationships
Increasing Inequality in Wealth

Ave. Amer. Income increase; unequally distributed

Slaves, Indians, landless farmers, unskilled workers did not share $$ increase

More pronounced wealthy vs. poor class

Urban Poor

Significant population of destitute people emerging in urban centers

W/O resources, homeless, depended on charity/crime

Immigrants (Irish), widows, orphans, alcoholics, mentally ill, Free Blacks

16. Describe the emergence of an American middle class. (281)

Result of the growth of the industrial economy and increasing commercial life
Economic development > own/work in business/shops, engage in trade, enter professions, administer organizations
Commerce and Industry = source of $$; people = prosperous w/o owning land
Growing class distinctions btw workers/artisans and middle class

17. What was the “Cult of Domesticity”? (283-284)

Women as guardians of the “domestic virtues”
Occupied their own separate sphere
Home shaped by women
Duty to provide religious and moral instruction
Benefits

Live in greater material comfort

Higher value on “female virtues”

High vale on role as wife and mother

Costs

Detached from public world

Fewer outlets for interests and energies

18. Who was P.T. Barnum? (288)

P.T. Barnum: unscrupulous showman who opened the American Museum in New York (1842)
Great freak show (midgets, Siamese twins, magicians, ventriloquists)
Drew people to museum through engaging lectures (appealed to young women)
Pioneer in exploiting public taste for wild & exotic
(1870s) Launched Circus

19. An important theme in how the United States grew and developed as a nation is the differences between industrial and agricultural life in the north and the primarily agricultural south. Read the end of chapter 10 (288-290) to understand the agriculture and industry of the north as well as the characteristics of urban and rural life in the north. (Chapter 11 is more about life in the south)

Industrialization boosted agriculture

Domestic market for farm goods ^

North W. sold most of products to North E. (vice versa)

Strengthened ties btw N.E. and N.W.

Isolation of the South within the Union

Gap between the North and South

Topic Outline

2007-01-02T13:18:00.000-08:00

The topic outline as suggested by the college board

1. Pre-Columbian Societies
Early inhabitants of the Americas
American Indian empires in Mesoamerica, the Southwest, and the Mississippi Valley
American Indian cultures of North America at the time of European contact

2. Transatlantic Encounters and Colonial Beginnings, 1492-1690
First European contacts with Native Americans
Spain's empire in North America
French colonization of Canada
English settlement of New England, the Mid-Atlantic region, and the South
From servitude to slavery in the Chesapeake region
Religious diversity in the American colonies
Resistance to colonial authority: Bacon's Rebellion, hte Glorious Revolution, and the Pueblo Revolt

3. Colonial North America, 1690-1754
Population growth and immigration
Transatlantic trade and the growth of seaports
The 18th century back country
Growth of plantation economies and slave societies
The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening
Colonial governments and imperial policy in British North America

4. The American Revolutionary Era, 1754-1789
The French and Indian War
The Imperial Crisis and resistance to Britain
The War of Independence
State constitutions and the Articles of Confederation
The federal Constitution

5. The Early Republic, 1789-1815
Washington, Hamilton, and shaping of the national government
Emergence of political parties: Federalists and Republicans
Republican Motherhood and education for women
Beginnings of the Second Great Awakening
Significance of Jefferson's presidency
Expansion into the trans-Appalachian West; American Indian resistance
Growth of slavery and free Black communities
The War of 1812 and its consequences

6. Transformation of the Economy and Society in Antebellum America
The transportation revolution and creation of a national market economy
Beginnings of industrialization and changes in social and class structures
Immigration and nativist reaction
Planters, yeoman farmers, and slaves in the cotton South

7. The Transformation of Politics in Antebellum America
Emergence of the second party system
Federal authority and its opponents: judicial federalism, the Bank War, tariff controversy, and states' rights debates
Jacksonian democracy and its successes and limitations

8. Religion, Reform, and Renaissance in Antebellum America
Evangelical Protestant revivalism
Social reforms
Ideals of domesticity
Transcendentalism and Utopian communities
American Renaissance: literary and artistic expressions

9. Territorial Expansion and Manifest Destiny
Forced removal of American Indians to the trans-Mississippi West
Wester migration and cultural interactions
Territorial acquisitions
Early U.S. imperialism: the Mexican War

10. The Crisis of the Union
Pro- and antislavery arguments and conflicts
Compromise of 1850 and popular sovereignty
The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the emergence of the Republican Party
Abraham Lincoln, the election of 1860, and secession

11. Civil War
Two societies at war: mobilization, resources, and internal dissent
Military strategies and foreign diplomacy
Emancipation and the role of African Americans in the war
Social, political, and economic effects of war in the North, South, and West

12. Reconstruction
Presidential and Radical Reconstruction
Southern state governments: aspirations, achievements, failures
Role of African Americans in politics, education, and the economy
Compromise of 1877
Impact of Reconstruction

13. The Origins of the New South
Reconfiguration of souther agriculture: sharecropping and crop lien system
Expansion of manufacturing and industrialization
The politics of segregation: Jim Crow and disfranchisement

14. Development of the West in the Late 19th Century
Expansion and development of western railroads
Competitors for the West: miners, ranchers, homesteaders, and American Indians
Government policy toward American Indians
Gender, race, and ethnicity in the far West
Environmental impacts of western settlement

15. Industrial America in the Late Nineteenth Century
Corporate consolidation of industry
Effects of technological development on the worker and workplace
Labor and unions
National politics and influence of corporate power
Migration and immigration: the changing face of the nation
Proponents and opponents of the new order, e.g., Social Darwinism and Social Gospel

16. Urban Society in the Late Nineteenth Century
Urbanization and the lure of the city
City problems and machine politics
Intellectual and cultural movements and popular entertainment

17. Populism and Progressivism
Agrarian discontent and political issues of the late nineteenth century
Origins of Progressive reform: municipal, state, and national
Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson as Progressive presidents
Women's roles: family, workplace, education, politics, and reform
Black America urban migration and civil rights initiatives

18. The Emergence of America as a World Power
American imperialism: political and economic expansion
War in Europe and American neutrality
The First World War at home and abroad
Treaty of Versailles
Society and economy in the postwar years

19. The New Era: 1920s
The business of America and the consumer economy
Republican politics: Harding, Coolidge, Hoover
The culture of Modernism: science, the arts, and entertainment
Responses to Modernism: religious fundamentalism, nativism, and Prohibition
The ongoing struggle for equality: African Americans and women

20. The Great Depression and the New Deal
Causes of the Great Depression
The Hoover administration's response
Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the New Deal
Labor and union recognition
The New Deal coalition and its critics from the Right and Left
Surviving hard times American society during the Great Depression

21. The Second World War
The rise of fascism and militarism in Japan, Italy, and Germany
Prelude to war: policy of neutrality
The attack on Pearl Harbor and United States declaration of war
Fighting a multifront war
Diplomacy, war aims, and war time conferences
The United States as a global power in the Atomic Age

22. The Home Front During the War
Wartime mobilization of the economy
Urban migration and demographic changes
Women, work, and family during the war
Civil liberties and civil rights during wartime
Expansion of government power

23. The United States and the Early Cold War
Origins of the Cold War
Truman and containment
The Cold War in Asia: China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan
Diplomatic strategies and policies of the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations
The Red Scare and McCarthyism
Impact of the Cold War on American society

24. The 1950s
Emergence of the modern civil rights movement
The affluent society and "the other America"
Consensus and conformity: suburbia and middle-class America
Social critics, nonconformists, and cultural rebels
Impact of changes in science, technology, and medicine

25. The Turbulent 1960s
From the New Frontier to the Great Society
Expanding movements for civil rights
Cold War confrontations: Asia, Latin America, and Europe
Beginning of Détente
The antiwar movement and the counterculture

26. Politics and Economics at the End of the Twentieth Century
The election of 1968 and the "Silent Majority"
Nixon's challenges: Vietnam, China, Watergate
Changes in the American economy: the energy crisis, deindustrialization, and the service economy
The New Right and the Reagan revolution
End of the Cold War

27. Society and Culture at the End of the Twentieth Century
Demographic changes: surge of immigration after 1965, Sunbelt migration and the graying of America
Revolutions in biotechnology, mass communication, and computers
Politics in a multicultural society

28. The United States in the Post-Cold War World
Globalization and the American economy
Unilateralism vs. multilateralism in foreign policy
Domestic and foreign terrorism
Environmental issues in a global context

U.S. History Themes

2007-01-02T12:39:00.000-08:00

These are a few themes that the collegeboard committee created and suggested. They should be thought of in conjunction with every topic covered in the APUSH material. Keep in mind that these themes may compromise essay topics on the test. It is important to create connections between topics and understand the WHY rather than a simple WHAT.

American Diversity
The diversity of the American people and the relationships among different groups. The roles of race, class, ethnicity, and gender in the history of the United States.

American Identity
Views of the American national character adn ideas about American exceptionalism. Recognizing regional differences within the context of what it means to be an American.

Culture
Diverse individual and collective expressions through literature, art, philosophy, music, theater, and film throughout U.S. history. Popular culture and dimensions of cultural conflict within American society.

Demographic Changes
Changes in birth, marriage, and death rates; life expectancy and family patterns; population size and density. The economic, social, and political effect of immigration, internal migration, and migration networks.

Economic Transformations
Changes in trade, commerce, and technology across time. The effects of capitalist development, labor and unions, and consumerism.

Environment
Ideas about the consumption and conservation of natural resources. The impact of population growth, industrialization, pollution, and urban and suburban expansion.

Globalization
Engagement with the rest of the world from the fifteenth century to the present: colonialism, mercantilism, global hegemony, development of markets imperialism, cultural exchange.

Politics and Citizenship
Colonial and revolutionary legacies, American political traditions, growth of democracy, and the development of the modern state. Defining citizenship; struggles for civil rights.

Reform
Diverse moments focusing on a broad range of issues, including anti-slavery, education, labor, temperance, women's rights, civil rights, gay rights, war, public health, and government.

Religion
The variety of religious beliefs and practices in America from prehistory to the 21st century; influence of religion on politics, economics, and society.

Slavery and Its Legacies in North America
Systems of slave labor and other forms of unfree labor (e.g., indentured servitude, contract labor) in Native American societies, the Atlantic World, and the American South and West. The economics of slavery and its racial dimensions. Patterns of resistance and the long-term economic, political, and social effects of slavery.

War and Diplomacy
Armed conflict from the precolonial period to the 21st century; impact of war on American foreign policy and on politics, economy, and society.