Important Royal Lines

Important Royal Lines and Governments
FRANCE:
Valois Line:
Louis XI “Spider King” (1461-83)
Francis I (1515-1547): Concordat of Bologna; Hapsburg-Valois Wars
Bourbons:
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610): politique; Edict of Nantes; Duke of Sully
Louis XIII (1610-1643): Richelieu
Louis XIV (The “Sun King”) – (1643-1715): Mazarin, Colbert; absolutism, Versailles
Louis XV (1715-1774)
Louis XVI (1774-1792): beheaded during French Revolution
The Empire: Napoleon I (1804-1814) (Note: Consulate 1799-1804)
Restoration of Bourbons: Louis XVIII: Charter of 1814-constitutional monarchy
Orleans: Louis Philippe (1830-1848) " Bourgeois King")
Second Republic: 1848-1852 -- President Louis Napoleon
Second Empire: Napoleon III (1842-1870) (Note: 2nd Republic 1848-1852)
Third Republic: 1870-1940: Adolph Thiers, Leon Gambetta, Raymond Poincarè
Vichy Regime: 1940-1944 (during Nazi occupation of France in WWII)
Fourth Republic: 1944-1958; Charles de Gaulle
Fifth Republic: 1958-- Charles de Gaulle, Francois Mitterand

AUSTRIA
Habsburg Succession, 1493-1637: Holy Roman Empire
Maximilian I (1493-1519): 1st important Habsburg
Charles V (1519-1556): most powerful ruler in Europe; tried to prevent spread of reformation
Ferdinand I (1556-1584) – Austria (brother of Charles V)
Leopold I (1658-1705): thwarted Turkish invasion
Charles VI: Pragmatic Sanction, 1713
Maria Theresa (1740-1780): War of Austrian Succession
Joseph II (1765-1790): greatest of the "enlightened monarchs"

SPAIN
Ferdinand and Isabella (1492-1519): created modern unified Spain
Habsburgs:
Charles V (1519-1556) -- (controlled both Austrian and Spanish thrones
Phillip II (1556-1598) -- son of Charles V: Catholic crusade against England

ENGLAND (Great Britain after 1707)
Tudors
Henry VII (1489-1509): won "War of the Roses"; "new monarch"
Henry VIII (1509-1547): English Restoration
Mary I “Bloody Mary” (1553-1558) – (note: not Mary, “Queen of Scots”)
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Stuarts
James I (1603-1625): "divine right" theory
Charles I (1625-1642): beheaded
Interregnum: Commonwealth (1649-53); Protectorate (1653-58); Oliver Cromwell
Charles II (1660-1685): Restoration
James II (1685-1688): overthrown during "Glorious Revolution"
William and Mary (1688-1702): products of "Glorious Revolution"
Anne (1702-1714): 1707, royal title now King (or Queen) of Great Britain & Ireland
Hanoverians:
18th century: George I, George II, George III (lost American Revolution)
Robert Walpole (first prime minister in 1820s)
Queen Victoria (1837-1901)
19th century leaders: Earl Grey, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone
20th century leaders: Ramsay McDonald, Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, Margaret Thatcher

GERMANY
Hohenzollerns:
Frederick William – The “Great Elector”(1640-1688): foundation for Prussian state
Frederick I (Elector Frederick III) “The Ostentatious” (1688-1713)
Frederick William I (1713-1740) “The Soldiers’ King”
Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (1740-1786): "Enlightened Despotism"
Frederick William IV (1840-1861): "Humiliation of Olmutz"
William I (1861-1888) -- unified Germany under Bismarck; became Kaiser Wilhelm I
William II (1888-1918) -- World War I
Weimar Republic: 1919-1933 Gustave Streseman
Third Reich: 1933-1945 -- Adolf Hitler
German Federal Republic (West Germany): 1949-1990 Konrad Adenauer, Willy Brandt
German Democratic Republic (East Germany): 1949-1990
German Federal Republic (reunited Germany): 1990- Helmut Kohl
RUSSIA:
Ivan III “Ivan the Great” (1442-1505)
Ivan IV “Ivan the Terrible” (1533-1584)
Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Michael Romanov (1613-1645)
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
Catharine II, “Catharine the Great” (1762-96): Enlightened despotism?
Alexander I (1801-1825): Napoleonic wars, "Holy Alliance"
Nicholas I (1825-1855):
Alexander II (1855-1881): Emancipation Edict
Alexander III (1881-1894): "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Russification"
Nicholas II (1894-1917): WWI, Russian Revolution
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR): 1922-1991
Vladimir Lenin (1917-1924) , Joseph Stalin (1927-1953), Nikita Krushchev (1955-1964)
Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982), Mikahil Gorbachev (1985-1991)
Russian Federation: 1991- Boris Yeltsin (1991-2000)

ITALY: Victor Emmanuel I (1849-1878) -- King of Sardinia: unified Italy (Count Cavour)
Victor Emmanuel II (1900-1946): WWI, Mussolini

The Industrial Revolution

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Arnold Toynbee, late 19th century historian, coined the phrase (he had a religious view of history).
è“Dual Revolution: liberalism of the French Revolution combined with the Industrial Revolution
A. After 1815, these economic and political revolutions fused in the form of capitalism, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism throughout Europe.
B. This “Dual Revolution” has continued to unfold well into the 20th century.
Roots of the Industrial Revolution
Commercial Revolution (1500-1700)
rise in capitalism (laissez-faire): bourgeoisie at the forefront
chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain area (BEIC, DEIC)
joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for common purpose (forerunner of
modern corporation
stock markets: e.g., Bourse in Germany
mercantilism: economic self-sufficiency; “bullionism”
overseas colonization: esp. Atlantic economy
scientific revolution: new inventions and experimentation in better agricultural practices
rise in population: between 1750 & 1850 pop. nearly doubled to 266 million
Thomas Malthus: late 18th century economist who believed food supply could not keep up
with population growth (pop. growth exponential; food production increased geometrically)
England
è Reasons favorable to England: influence of Calvinism, good location of rivers, coal & iron,
strong Atlantic economy & navy, abundance of cheap laborers (due to enclosure?),
agricultural revolution, large amount of capital (e.g. Bank of England), inventive and
technologically skilled managers, stable gov’t supportive of industry,
Bubble Act repealed: again allowed for joint-stock companies
Lowes Act: allowed for limited liability
repeal of Navigation Act and Corn Laws
Inventions (due to growing worldwide demand for textiles)
1733, John Kay: flying shuttle
1764, James Hargreaves: spinning jenny
1769, Richard Arkwright: water frame--improved thread spinning.
1779, Samuel Crompton combines spinning-jenny & water frame into the mule.
1780s, Arkwright: steam engine to power looms; factory production of textiles.
1784, Edmund Cartwright (1753-1823) invents loom powered by horses, water, or steam.
1793, Eli Whitney, cotton gin
impact of new technology in textiles: cheaper, faster, & more profitable
coal
Thomas Savory,1698 & Thomas Newcomen,1705: steam pump rids mines of water seepage
1769, James Watt (1736-1819) invented and patented the first efficient steam engine.
è Industrial Revolution’s most fundamental advance in technology
heavy industry: manufacture of machinery and materials used in production
Henry Cort, in 1780s, developed puddling furnace: refined pig iron




Transportation Revolution:
Duke of Bridgewater: developed canal system (with use of steam power)
John McAdam (1756-1836): hard-surfaced roads
1785, James Rumsey (1743-1792): first steamship, went up the Potomac River
1807, Robert Fulton, Clermont: first useful steamship; went up the Hudson River
Railroad’s impact:
revolutionized travel overland; fast, cheap, and in any terrain
Growing regional and national market
1825, George Stephenson made railway locomotive commercially successful.
Britain’s economy by 1850:
1. Produced 2/3 of world’s coal.
2. Produced more than ½ of world’s iron.
3. Produced more than ½ of world’s cotton cloth.
4. GNP rose between 1801 and 1850 350%
· 100% growth between 1780 and 1800.
· Population increased from 9 million in 1780 to almost 21 million in 1851.
5. Per capita income increased almost 100% between 1801 and 1851.

Continental Europe industrializes after 1815
è Napoleonic Wars retarded growth of Continental economy until after 1815
borrowing (or stealing) of British technology
Industrialization differed in each country after 1815
Belgium, Holland, France, & U.S. began in 2nd decade of 19th century.
Samuel Slater: “father of the factory system” in the U.S.
Germany, Austria, and Italy in mid-19th century.
Germany eclipsed Britain by 1890s
Eastern Europe and Russia at end of 19th century.
Parts of Asia and Africa well into 20th century; it still continues.
Strong sovereign central governments and banking systems to promote native industry
Credit Mobilier in France: financed major industrial projects
Tariff policies used to protect native industries: Zollverein in Germany
Significance: increased production and availability of manufactured goods.














Social Implications from Industrial Revolution:
è New social order replaced traditional stratification (clergy, nobility and masses)
rise of the middle-class: bourgeoisie
new wage-earning class of factory workers
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895): lashed out at middle-class abuse of wage-earners
Luddites: attacked factories, broke machinery; believed factories taking their jobs
After 1850, industrial revolution more favorable to workers than negative.
struggle between labor and capital
union movement: workers began to organize to improve wages & working conditions Combination Acts (1799): Parliament fearful of radicalism of French Revolution
Made unions illegal; largely ignored by workers; repealed in 1824
Robert Owen (1771-1858): in 1834, Grand National Consolidated Trades Union
Movement failed; after 1851 unions moving toward craft unions
Chartists: sought political democracy for all men
Great Charter: put demands before Parliament
Failed initially but all demands eventually met by early 20th c.
è Union action combined with general prosperity and a developing social conscience, to
improve working conditions, wages, and hours first of skilled labor, and later of unskilled labor.

changes in working conditions
factory work: more discipline required; increased loss of personal freedom
exploitation of children
Factory Act of 1833: limited hours per day; prohibited children under age 9
Mines Act of 1842: prohibited all children under age 10 from working underground
è Urbanization of the world: Industrial Revolution’s most important sociological effect
è Working class injustices, gender exploitation and standard-of-living issues became the
19th century’s great social and political dilemmas
family structure: productive work taken out of the home to the factory
gender issues: women’s work now seen as less valuable; increasingly associated with
domestic duties.
Men separated from wives and children: leaving home to go work or working in
different factory
David Ricardo: “iron law” of wages -- argued that the high pressure of population would
cause wages to always be low.

Industrial Revolution may have prevented large-scale human tragedy like in Ireland
Irish Potato Famine: 1845-46, 1848, 1851
Historical debate on Industrial Revolution:
Capitalists view it as a positive step toward fulfilling human wants and needs
Socialists and communists view it as the further exploitation of the have-nots by the haves

Napoleonic Era: 1799-1815

NAPOLEONIC ERA (1799-1815) – “Age of Voltaire”
Consulate Period: 1799-1804 (Enlightened Reform)
èNapoleon Bonaparte, First Consul: be viewed as the last of the “Enlightened Despots”
plebiscite: general referendum overwhelmingly voted for Napoleon
Code Napoleon:: legal unity provided first clear and complete codification of French law:
code of civil procedure, criminal procedure, commercial code, and penal code.
Equality before the law
“Careers Open to talent”: promotions in gov’t service based on merit
Drawbacks: denied women equal status, denied true political liberty (due to absolutism), nepotism by placing family members as heads of conquered regions
Religion
Concordat of 1801: Napoleon ended the rift between the church and the state
Papacy renouncing claims over church property seized during the Revolution;
France allowed to nominate or depose bishops.
In return, priests who had resisted the Civil Constitutions of the Clergy would
replace those who had sworn an oath to the state
Extended legal toleration to Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and atheists who all received
same civil rights
Bank of France: served interests of the state and financial oligarchy
educational reform: public education under state control
Creation of new imperial nobility to reward most talented generals & officials
police state: Led by Joseph Fouchè, a former Hèbertist
Duke of Enghien (related to Bourbons) arrested and shot though innocent
Brittany and the Vendèe dealt with ruthlessly
War of the Second Coalition: 1798-1801
Battle of the Nile
Treaty of Lunèville (1801)
Resulted in Austria’s loss of her Italian possessions.
German territory on west bank of the Rhine incorporated into France
Britain isolated
Peace Interim:
Treaty of Amiens (w/ Britain) 1802
Britain returned some French islands; France kept conquered European territories
Britain dismayed treaty didn’t yield commercial benefit; broke treaty and war renewed
French forces defeated in Haiti by disease and Toissant L’Overture; Louisiana Territory sold

Empire Period, 1804-1814
Napoleon crowned Emperor
Grand Empire: consisted of an enlarged France and satellite kingdoms
War of the Third Coalition: (1805-1807)
Napoleon planned to invade Great Britain
Alexander I (Russia): joined Austria and Great Britain
La Harpe: Swiss tutor and pro-French revolution who educated Alexander
Battle of Trafalgar (1805), Horatio Nelson: Britain destroyed French navy
Established supremacy of British navy for over a century
Napoleon forced to cancel invasion of Britain
Battle of Austerliz (Dec. 1805): Napoleon smashed Austrian army and gained more territory
Third Coalition collapsed
Battle of Jena: Napoleon defeated Prussia in 1806
Treaty of Tilsit (1807): symbolized height of Napoleon’s success
Face to face negotiations between France & Russia on Niemen River while Prussia
waited eagerly
Provisions:
Prussia lost half its population.
Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of western and central Europe.
Russia also agreed to accept Napoleon’s Continental System.
Germany in 1806
è Consolidation of 300 states into 39
Confederation of the Rhine: 15 German states minus Prussia, Austria, and Saxony
Napoleon became “Protector” of the Confederation
Holy Roman Empire abolished
Feudalism abolished






è Continental System: aimed to isolate Britain and promote Napoleon’s mastery over Europe
Berlin Decree, 1806: British ships not allowed in European ports
“order in council”, 1806: Britain proclaimed any ship going to Europe had to stop there first
Milan Decree, 1807: Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized
when it entered the Continent.
These edicts eventually led to U.S. declaring war on Great Britain: War of 1812
Continental System a major failure: failed to hurt Britain; European countries grew tired of it
Napoleon’s empire by 1810: included
Confederation of the Rhine
Joseph Bonaparte: King of Spain
Jerome Bonaparte: King of Westphalia
Caroline Bonaparte: Queen of Naples
Duchy of Warsaw
Kingdom of Italy
(Independent but allied states of Austria, Prussia and Russia)
The Peninsular War (1808-1814) in Spain: first great revolt against Napoleon’s power
guerrilla war against France aided by Britain led by Duke of Wellington
War of Liberation (1809): Austria declared war against France but lost more territory
Russian Campaign (1812):
Battle of Borodino (1812): ended in draw but Napoleon overextended himself
French troops invaded all the way to Moscow but eventually driven back and destroyed
War of the Fourth Coalition (1813-1814): Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia
Battle of Leipzig (“Battle of Nations”), Oct. 1813 – hitherto, largest battle in world history
Most of Napoleon’s Grand Army destroyed
Frankfurt Proposals: Austrian minister Metternich demanded France return to historic
borders; Napoleon refused
Quadruple Alliance: created against France; lasted 20 years
Napoleon abdicates April, 1814; Bourbons restored to throne
King Louis XVIII creates Charter of 1814: constitutional monarchy; bicameral legislature
“first” Treaty of Paris (1814)
France surrendered all lands gained since 1792
Allies imposed no indemnity or reparations (after Louis refused to do so)
è Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
Klemens Von Metternich: dominant figure at the Congress; conservative
Alexander I
Principles of Settlement: Legitimacy, Compensation, Balance of Power
“Hundred Days” (March 20-June 22, 1815): Napoleon returns from exile and organizes new army
Capitalized on stalled talks at Congress of Vienna
Battle of Waterloo, June 1815: Napoleon defeated by Duke of Wellington
Napoleon exiled to St. Helena
“2nd” Treaty of Paris: dealt more harshly w/ France; large indemnity, some minor territories

The French Revolution

FRENCH REVOLUTION
long-term causes
Enlightenment ideas led to rising expectations among French citizens
classical liberalism: (see handout)
French physiocrats: advocated reform of the agrarian order; opposed to mercantilism
American Revolution intrigued many with ideal of liberty and equality
Social Stratification
First Estate: clergy, Gallican Church (less than 1% of population)
Second Estate: nobility (2-4% of population)
Third Estate: rest of population (paid both tithes to church and taille to gov’t)
peasantry: owned 40% of land in France; corvée—forced labor several days
per year for nobles
Lettre de cachet: gov’t could imprison anyone without trial or jury
bourgeoisie: upper middle class; well-to-do but resented 1st and 2nd Estates had
all the power and privilege
è Historical interpretations of the French Revolution:
Traditional view: clash between the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy
Recent scholarship: bourgeoisie and aristocracy on parallel ladders leading to clash
with monarchy
short-term cause: bankruptcy of the gov’t and enormous debt
King Louis XVI (1774-1792), financial mismanagement; ½ of budget went to pay interest
Jacques Necker: finance minister who tried to raise taxes; privileged classes refused
Parlement of Paris blocked tax increases
cahiers de doleance: Each estate expected to compile list of suggestions and
grievances and present them to the king during upcoming Estates General
elections held during worst depression of 18th century
Estates General, May 1789: 1st time meeting since 1614
Parlement of Paris ruled voting would be done by estate (3 total votes)
3rd Estate furious that vote would not be proportional to population
Abbè Sièyès: What is the Third Estate? Answer: everything!
Rousseau’s Social Contract: the "general will" should prevail (3rd Estate)
3rd Estate prevailed in voting method argument after 6 weeks
èNational Assembly, 1789-1791 (also called the Constituent Assembly) – “Age of Montesquieu”
Tennis Court Oath:
June 17, 3rd Estate declared itself the true National Assembly of France
King locked them out of meeting place
Oath: swore not to disband until they had given France a constitution
bourgeoisie dominated the National Assembly
Storming of the Bastille – July 14, 1789
“Parisian” revolution due to food shortages, soaring bread prices, unemployment, and
fear of military repression
Stormed Bastille in search of gunpowder and weapons
Significance: inadvertently saved the National Assembly from king’s repression
Great Fear of 1789: wave of violence and hysteria in countryside against propertied class
Peasants (with help of middle class) destroyed records of feudal obligations
August 4, National Assembly abolished feudalism (manorialism); peaceful revolution
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens: became constitutional blueprint for France
Provisions: due process of law, sovereignty of the people, equality, freedom of
expression & religion, tax only by common consent, separate gov’t branches
“citizen”: included everyone, regardless of class
Women did not share equally in rights
Olympe de Gouges: The Rights of Woman, 1791: demanded equal rights and
economic and educational opportunities
Mary Wollstonecraft: Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792: supported Gouges
Madame de Stael: ran a salon and wrote books deploring subordination of women
October 5, 1789: as part of bread riot, women march to Versailles; accelerate the revolution
Incited by Jean Paul Marat
Forced king and family to move to Tuleries in Paris: “The Baker, the Baker’s wife,
and the baker’s little boy”
Constitution
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy: created national church with 83 bishops and
diocese; biggest blunder of the National Assembly
83 Departments: country politically divided into districts
constitutional monarchy established
Flight to Varennes: king fled from Tuleries hoping to escape and rally support; failed
Assignats: new paper currency; former church lands guaranteed value of currency
International Reaction
Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Reflections on the Revolution in France
Conservative: opposed revolution as mob rule
Thomas Paine: Rights of Man: responded to Burke’s indictment by defending
the Enlightenment principles of the revolution

èLegislative Assembly, 1791-1792
Jacobins: political club that dominated Legislative Assembly
Girondins: radical Jacobins who were advanced party of the revolution and brought
he country to war
Declaration of Pillnitz, August, 1791: issued by Prussia and Austria in August, 1791
Èmigrès: French nobles who fled France sought support of foreign countries.
Emperor Leopold declared he would restore gov’t of France if other powers
joined him; really a bluff
French revolutionaries took Leopold at his word and prepared for war.
War of the First Coalition
Legislative Assembly declared war in April, 1792
Austrian armies defeated French armies but divisions over eastern Europe
saved France
Brunswick Manifesto: Prussia & Austria would destroy Paris if royal family harmed
Revolutionary sentiment led by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat
King stormed at Tuleries, Swiss Guards killed; king taken prisoner
Marked beginning of “2nd French Revolution”



Paris Commune: Revolutionary municipal gov’t set up in Paris, which usurped powers of the
Legislative Assembly
Led by Georges-Jacques Danton
Legislative Assembly suspended 1791 constitution
September Massacres (led by Paris Commune)
Rumors of aristocratic and clerical conspiracy with foreign invaders led to
massacre of over 1,000 priests, bourgeoisie, and aristocrats

èNational Convention, 1792-1795 – “Age of Rousseau”
France proclaimed a republic, September 17, 1792
Equality, Liberty, Fraternity:
Two factions emerged:
The Mountain: radical republicans; urban class (Danton, Robespierre, Marat)
Girondins: more moderate faction; represented countryside
sans-culottes (“without breeches”): (not part of National Convention)
working-class; extreme radical
kept revolution moving forward: stormed Bastille, march to Versailles, driving king
from Tuleries, September Massacres
Battle of Valmy, Sept. 20, 1792: Prussian invasion stopped; moral victory for Convention
Battle of Jemappes: first major victory for France; took Austrian Netherlands
But war turned against France by Spring 1793
Louis XVI beheaded January, 1793
Jacques Roux: demanded radical political action to guarantee bread
Mountain ousts Girondins, May 1793: urged to do so by sans-culottes
Enragès, radical working-class group (even more than sans-culottes) seized and
arrested Mountain members in the Convention
Charlotte Corday, member of Girondins, kills Marat
Committee of Public Safety, formed in Summer 1793 as emergency gov’t
Maximilien Robespierre
Louis Saint-Just (1767-1794): also a leader of Committee
Law of Maximum: planned economy to respond to food shortages and other
economic problems
Foreshadowed socialism
slavery abolished in French West Indies
Reign of Terror (1793-94): most notorious event of French Revolution
Law of Suspects: Created Revolutionary Tribunals at the local level to hear cases of accused enemies brought to “justice”
guillotine: created as an instrument of mercy.
Queen Marie Antoinette beheaded
Girondins executed in September
Vendèe: region in western France that opposed revolution; many executed
Jacques Hèbert, “angry men”—Hèbertistes, executed
Danton and followers executed in 1794
Cult of the Supreme Being: deistic naturalist religion; Catholics now opposed


Thermidorian Reaction (1794): ended “Reign of Terror”
Robespierre executed, July 1794
Constituted significant political swing to the right (conservative)
Girondins readmitted
Economic controls lifted: ended control of sans-culottes
Revolutionary Calendar: new non-Christian calendar
èThe Directory: 1795-1799
Constitution of 1795 restored some order but gov’t very ineffective
Upper bourgeoisie in control but constituted very narrow social base of country
Conspiracy of Equals led by “Gracchus” Babeuf
sans-culottes faction that sought to overthrow gov’t and abolish property
precursor to communism
Easily suppressed by Directory and Babeuf executed
Elections in 1797 a victory for royalists but annulled by gov’t
Dictatorship favorable to revolution establish: “Post-Fructidorian Terror”
Victory over First Coalition
Napoleon Bonaparte victorious of Austrian army
Battle of the Pyramids: Napoleon victorious over British army in Egypt
Battle of the Nile: devastating defeat of Napoleon by British; Napoleon returns to lead France
Coup d’Ètat Brumaire, November 1799: Napoleon invited by Abbe Sieyes to lead
Directory overthrown and Napoleon becomes First Consul

18th Century Society

CHANGING SOCIETY IN THE 18TH CENTURY
marriage; divorce
birth control & pre-marital sex
illegitimacy
work away from home
child rearing
foundling hospitals
infanticide
“Spare the rod and spoil the child”
humanitarianism
formal education
nutrition
Health
small-pox vaccine: Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
hospital reform
Religious reform
Regulation of local religion state governments and church hierarchy
Pietism in Germany
Methodism, John Wesley in England

American Revolution
classical liberalism ideals:
Declaration of Independence: impact of Locke and the Enlightenment
French aid: important in defeating British army
Became a world war:
Spain joined France hoping to drive Britain from Gibraltar
Dutch joined in against Britain; sought trade with U.S.
League of Armed Neutrality: Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Ottoman Empire
Formed to protect their commerce from British blockade
è Impact on Europe:
Inspired liberals to seek republicanism (esp. French Revolution)
War overburdened French treasury and was a direct cause of the French Revolution

18th Century Expansion

EXPANSION IN THE 18TH CENTURY
economic and demographic changes
1700, 80% of western Europeans were farmers; higher % in eastern Europe
Most people lived in poverty
dramatic population growth until 1650; slows down until 1750
open-field system: greatest accomplishment of Medieval agriculture
village agriculture; 1/3 to ½ of fields lay fallow
serfs in eastern Europe were worst off; many sold with lands (like slavery)
è Agricultural Revolution: major milestone in human civilization
impact of the scientific revolution’s experimental method was great
crop rotation most important feature
enclosure movement: end to common lands and open-field system
agriculturalists consolidated lands and closed them off
game laws in England prohibited peasants from hunting game
caused considerable friction in the countryside in 17th and 18th centuries
traditional view of enclosure (Marx): poor people driven off the land
recent scholarship: negative impact of enclosure has been exaggerated
As much as 50% of lands enclosed already by 1750 (much by mutual consent)
1700: ratio of landless farmer to landowner = 2:1; not much greater in 1800
Low Countries: took the lead
increased population meant more food had to be produced
Cornelius Vermuyden: important in drainage of swamp lands into useful farm land
Huge impact on southern England
England
Viscount Charles Townsend (1674-1738): improved soil by crop rotation (turnips)
Drained extensively, manured heavily, regular crop rotation w/o fallowing
Jethro Tull (1674-1741): seed drill; more efficient than scattering seeds by hand
selective breeding of ordinary livestock: created larger animals
Population Explosion after 1750
limits to population growth before 1700: famine, disease, war
reasons for population growth: disappearance of plague, improved sanitation, improved
transportation for food distribution (canal and roadbuilding in western Europe), increased food supply (esp. potato),



è Cottage Industry: first and foremost a family enterprise (also called “putting-out” system)
occurred during Agricultural Revolution
Putting-out system: city manufacturers took advantage of cheaper labor in the countryside
increased rural population eager to supplement agricultural income.
began to challenge urban craft industry
Inventions
1733, John Kay: flying shuttle
1764, James Hargreaves: spinning jenny
1769, Richard Arkwright: water frame, which improved thread spinning.
1780s, Arkwright: steam engine to power looms; factory production of textiles.
1793, Eli Whitney, cotton gin

Atlantic Economy in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Characteristics
· World trade became fundamental
· Spain and Portugal revitalized their empires and began drawing more wealth from renewed development.
· Netherlands, Great Britain, and France benefited most; Great Britain the leading maritime power.
Britain’s commercial leadership based on mercantilism
Navigation Laws: aimed to reduce Dutch trade in Atlantic region (1st in 1651, Cromwell)
Mercantilism: self-sufficiency; colonies exist solely for benefit of mother country
South Sea Bubble: responsible for exploiting the asiento other commercial privileges won
from Spain after Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Took over large portion of public debt by receiving gov’t bonds in return for shares of
its stock.
Stock values soared but the “bubble” burst in 1720
England recovered better than France who had created a Mississippi Bubble for
New Orleans commerce.
“Bubble Act”: forbade joint-stock companies, except those chartered by gov’t
3 Anglo-Dutch wars: hurt Dutch shipping and commerce
Netherlands’ “golden age: during 1st half of 16th century
Colonial Wars: Britain vs France
War of Spanish Succession (Queen Anne’s War) (1701-1713)
Treaty of Utrecht (1713):
Britain received asiento (slave trade) from Spain
Britain allowed to send 1 ship of merchandise annually into Panama.
War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739): started over Spanish anger over British abuse of asiento.
expanded into War of Austrian Succession the following year
War of Austrian Succession (King George’s War) (1740-1748)
Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748): restored status quo prior to war
Seven Years War (French and Indian War) (1754-1763)
William Pitt the Elder: successfully led war effort from Parliament
Wolfe defeated Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham (Battle of Quebec)
Treaty of Paris (1763): Britain gained all French territory in North America


N. American colonies: most valuable to Britain – tobacco, fish, lumber, grain
huge market for British goods: 2.5 million people by 1775
slavery
Spain’s Latin American colonies: helped revitalize Spanish empire in 18th c.
gold and silver mining recovered
significant trade with mother country
Creoles elite came to rival top Spanish authorities (about 10% of population)
Mestizos increased to about 20% of population
black slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico
Portuguese Brazil: about 50% of population African by early 19th c.
more successful in blending races than in Spanish colonies or United States

Enlightened Despotism

ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM – some monarchs adopted certain Enlightenment ideas
è Overview: In sum, reforms were made but very modest improvements occurred and life of the peasantry remained hard in the 18th century.
· Progressive reforms included toleration of religious minorities, simplified legal codes, and promotion of practical education.
· Yet, Absolutists more vigorously sought reforms to strengthen the state and allow them to compete militarily with their neighbors.
· In essence, continued state building of their predecessors.
è “Frederick the Great” (Frederick II: 1740-1786) of Prussia
· At war for first half of his reign
· War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – (King George’s War – 1744-1748)
Prussia, France, Bavaria & Spain vs. Austria and Russia
Took Silesia from Austria; Prussia now most powerful German state: “Great Power”
Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748): legitimized Frederick’s conquest.
· Seven Years War (1756-1763) – (French and Indian War)
Prussia alone in fighting France, Russia & Austria (outnumbered 15-1)
“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756: Britain allied with Prussia (but of little value)
Peter III of Russia let Prussia off the hook at a critical moment
Treaty of Paris (1763): Prussia retained Silesia; remained a “Great Power”
· Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign – ruler was the “first servant of the state”
· Religious freedom, education in schools and universities, codified laws, promoted industry and agriculture, encouraged immigration
· Social structure remained heavily stratified: serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility, Junkers became heart of military; difficult upward mobility for middle class leadership
èCatherine II of Russia (1762-1798) “Catherine the Great” – 1 of greatest rulers in Euro history
· Least “enlightened” of the Enlightened Despots
· westernization: architecture, sculpture, music--supported philosophes
· reforms: reduced torture, limited religious toleration, some education improvement, increased
local control
· Pugachev Rebellion (1773): largest peasant uprising in Russian history;
· Catherine gained support from nobility by granting greater control over serfs: high point for nobles--low point for serfs
· territorial expansion
· Annexed Polish territory: 3 partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795
· Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea (controlled by Tartars)
· Began conquest of Caucasus
· In 17th century, effectiveness of Russian monarchs limited by vast Russian territories
Austria
· Maria Theresa (1740-1780): Wars of 1740s led to internal consolidation
· Reduced serfdom (more than any other e. European ruler except her son)
èJoseph II (1765-1790) – greatest of the Enlightened despots (“greatest good for greatest #”)
· Abolished serfdom in 1781, freedom of press, freedom of religion & civic rights, more equitable justice system, made German official language (to assimilate minorities), increased control over Catholic education, expanded state schools, left empire in economic and political turmoil: Leopold I rescind many laws (e.g., serfdom)
France: rise of aristocratic power and liberalism resulted in end of absolutism
Louis XV (1715-1774):
Madame de Pompadour: most famous mistress of the 18th c.
charmed the king and gained decision-making power
Parlement of Paris (partial to nobles) blocked Louis’ absolutist ambitions
Renè de Maupeou: dissolved Parlement of Paris
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
reinstated Parlement of Paris (due to strong public opinion) & dismissed Maupeau
struggle with aristocracy and bourgeoisie resulted in the French Revolution.