ABSOLUTISM IN EASTERN EUROPE
èThree aging empires: gave way to new empires of Austria Prussia and Russia
Holy Roman Empire: religious divisions and war in 16th and 17th century
Ottoman Empire: could not maintain possessions in E. Europe and Balkans
Poland: liberum veto – voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous (= weak gov’t)
serfdom: beginning in 16th century and continuing into 18th century, mass of peasantry became serfs
robot: peasants owed lord 3 to 4 days a week of forced labor
Austrian Empire
· Multinational empire: Austrian, Hungarian, & Bohemian kingdoms
· Cosmopolitan aristocracy: serfdom
· Leopold I (1658-1705),: successfully repelled Turks
è Turkish threat: relatively religiously tolerant empire
· Suleiman the Magnificent (d. 1566): nearly conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade (Serbia), nearly 1/2 of Eastern Europe including all Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and part of southern Russia.
· “Janissary corps”: former Christian children dedicated fully to the military
· siege of Vienna, 1683: last attempt by Turks to take Central Europe
· Pragmatic Sanction (1713) issued by Charles VI: Habsburg territories indivisible; only Habsburgs could rule
Prussia: House of Hohenzollern
èFrederick William – The “Great Elector”(1640-1688)
Brandenburg-Prussia rule consolidated after 30 Years’ War: military force & taxation
Junkers: nobility sided with king for stability; hereditary serfdom in 1653
Created most efficient army in Europe
Frederick I (Elector Frederick III) “The Ostentatious” (1688-1713); 1st “King of Prussia”
Allied with Habsburgs in War of League of Augsburg and War of Spanish Succession
Frederick William I (1713-1740) “The Soldiers’ King”
Established Prussian abolutism
“Sparta of the North”: Largely a military state – best army in Europe
Junkers became officers caste in army in return for king’s absolutism
Russia
Slavic and Viking ancestry: 1st millenium AD
Boyars: Russian nobles
Mongols – “Golden Horde” took control in 13th c: left legacy of ruthless rule
Ivan III “Ivan the Great” (1442-1505)
“Third Rome”: Assumed leadership of Orthodox Christian Church;
èIvan IV “Ivan the Terrible” (1533-1584), first to take title “tsar”
Married a Romanov
Defeated last of Mongels: conquered Baltic, Far East, and Black Sea region
Began westernizing
Peasants fled oppressive rule: became “Cossacks”; led to more severe serfdom
“Time of Troubles”, 1584: period of chaos after Ivan’s death
Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Michael Romanov (1613-1645)
Created Russian empire across Asia to the Pacific (largest nation by 1689)
“Old Believers” (The Raskolniki): resisted westernization, severely persecuted.
èPeter the Great (1682-1725)
1698, put down revolt by strelski (Moscow Guards)
westernization (modernization): mostly for military purposes
state-regulated monopolies created; industrial serfdom
Table of Ranks: educational training for new civil service (mostly of nobles)
St. Petersburg begun in 1703 on Baltic; largest city in Northern Europe by his death.
“Winter Palace” sought to emulate Versailles.
Great Northern War (1700-1721)
Charles XII, 18-yr-old Swedish king
Battle of Poltava, 1709: Peter defeated Sweden
Treaty of Nystad (1721): Peter gained Baltic states “window to the West”
Catharine II, “Catharine the Great” (1762-96) – (see Enlightened Despotism)
Sunday, March 9, 2008
Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe: 1589-1715
ABSOLUTISM AND CONSTITUTIONALISM IN WESTERN EUROPE: 1589-1715
èAbsolutism: derived from belief in “divine right of kings”
sovereignty: embodied in the person of the ruler
Jean Bodin (1530-96): gave theoretical basis for absolutist states; wrote during Fr. civil wars
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679: Leviathan
state of nature: anarchy results; central drive in every man is power
Man’s life in a “state of nature” was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short strong,”
Ideas most closely identified with Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism (18th c.)
è Constitutionalism
John Locke, Second Treatise – natural rights: life, liberty and property
state of nature: humans reasonable & well disposed but handicapped by lack of gov’t
(Note: Rousseau’s “state of nature”-- humans essentially good but a few men take
property and resources corrupting communities. i.e., civilization corrupted humans; sought economic equality whereas Locke sought equality of opportunity)
French Absolutism in late 16th through mid-17th centuries
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610) – Bourbon dynasty
Duke of Sully (1560-1641): his reforms enhanced power of the monarchy
mercantilism: increased role of state in the economy
reduced royal debt, reformed tax collection, and improved transportation
Louis XIII (1610-43):
His regency plagued by corruption & mismanagement (mom ruled until he was of age)
è Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642): laid foundation for absolutism in France
Intendant System: sought to weaken nobility
Replaced local officials w/ civil servants who reported directly to the king
Largely filled by middle-class
Further developed mercantilism: increased taxation to fund military
Peace of Alais (1629): Huguenots lost fortified cities & Protestant armies
Began dictionary to standardize the French language
Foreign policy, esp. 30 Years’ War, weakened Hapsburg Empire
è Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) – the “Sun King” L’état, c’est moi (“the state is myself”)
Best model of absolutism in Europe
Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661) : controlled France while Louis XIV a child
The Fronde: aborted revolution directed against Mazarin
“Divine Right theory of rule”: Bishop Jacques Bossuet
France had largest population in Europe (17 million): Accounted for 20% of pop.
Versailles Palace: became a pleasure prison for the French nobility
Religious Policies
Edict of Fountainbleau—revoked Edict of Nantes
Repressed Jansenism (a kind of Calvinism within Catholic Church)
Mercantilism
Jean Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683):promoted mercantilism esp. “bullionism”
His goals was self-sufficiency for France; built roads & canals; gov’t supported monopolies; cracked down on guilds
è By 1683, France leading industrial country: textiles, mirrors, lacemaking,
foundries for steel making and firearms
Weaknesses:
Poor peasant conditions (esp. taxation) resulted in large emigration
Louis opted for army instead of navy; France later lost naval wars w/ England
War in later years nullified Colbert’s gains; Louis at war for 2/3 of his reign
French Classicism
Art: Nicholas Poussin (1593-1665)
Drama: Moliere (1622-1673)
Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)
è Wars of Louis XIV: initially successful but eventually ruinous to France
Creation of modern army
William of Orange (later King William III of England) thwarted Louis’ expansionism
War of Devolution (First Dutch War), 1667-68
Second Dutch War (1672-78) – Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland
Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79): France took Franche-Comté from Spain
League of Augsburg (formed in 1686): HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Rep.
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) – ( King William’s War): ended in status quo
William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.
War of Spanish Succession (1701-13) – (Queen Anne’s War)
will of Charles II (Hapsburg king): all Spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV
Grand Alliance: England, Dutch Rep., HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy
Battle of Blenheim (1704)
Treaty of Utrecht (1713):
Britain was biggest winner: gained asiento from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca.
partitioned Spanish possessions: Belgium given to Austria
Louis’ grandson enthroned, prevented unification of Bourbon dynasties.
Kings recognized in Sardinia (Savoy) and Prussia (Brandenburg)
Costs of Louis XIV’s wars: destroyed French economy, depopulation, weakened Louis XIV.
è Decline of the Spanish Empire (although it remained most powerful military until mid-17th c.)
Spanish Armada, 1588
loss of middle class: Moriscos and Marranos (+ Moors and Jews a century earlier)
inflation
taxation
large number of privileged people who hated work
religion overshadowed politics
defeat in 30 Years’ War: politically and economically disastrous
1640, Portugal reestablished independence.
Treaty of the Pyranees (1659): marked end of Spain as a Great Power
loss of parts of Spanish Netherlands and territory in northern Spain to France
Population in 1660 had declined to 5.5 million from 7.5 million in 1550
Charles II (1665-1700): one of worst rulers in Hapsburg history
No heir to throne resulted in War of Spanish Succession
Spain lost most possessions at Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Decline of Spain exemplified in Don Quixote by Miguel Cervantes (1605)
Constitutionalism in England
James I: belief in “divine right of kings”
King of Scotland; son of Mary “Queen of Scots”
Leadership of Church went to those with Arminian beliefs (predestination but
with “good works”)
Archbishop Laud tried to impose Catholic-style ritual; Puritans dismayed
King claimed “no bishop, no king” to Puritan demand to end bishop control.
Monarchy plagued by lack of revenue (expensive was of Elizabeth drained treasury)
Charles I (1625-1649): sought to rule without Parliament and to control the Anglican Church
Petition of Right, 1628: Parliament attempt to bribe king (taxes) in return for
accepting Parliament’s right to tax, habeas corpus, no quartering, and no
martial law in peacetime
Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629; did not reconvene until 1640
Religious persecution most important reason for civil war: led by Archbishop Laud
Long Parliament – summoned in 1640 (after failure of 2-month “Short Parliament”)
In return for granting taxation, Parliament made demands:
certain high leaders be tried: (Laud eventually executed)
Star Chamber abolished
Parliament could not be dissolved w/o its consent
è The English Civil War (Puritan Revolution; Great Rebellion) – 1642-1649
Cavaliers: supported the king
Roundheads, Puritans opposed king; Oliver Cromwell led “New Model Army”
major issues of the war
Battle of Nasby: Final major battle of war; Scottish Army assisted Cromwell
Division resulted between Presbyterians in Parliament (majority) and soldiers who
were independent and sought congregationalism
New Sects:
Levellers: Radical religious revolutionaries; sought social and political reform.
Quakers: believed in “inner light”; rejected church authority; pacifists
“Rump Parliament”: Pride’s Purge removed all non-Puritans and Presbyterians
from Parliament
Charles I beheaded in 1649
Interregnum: 1649-1660 rule without king
The Commonwealth (1649-1653): a republic – abolished monarch and House of Lords
The Protectorate (1653-1659), Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Dictatorship)
è The Restoration (1660-1688)
Parliament in 1660 reelected according to old franchise: Anglicans back in power
Charles II “The Merry Monarch” (1660-1685): Stuarts restored to the throne
Declaration of Breda: Charles agreed to abide by Parliament’s demands
The Clarendon Code, 1661: Anglicans excluded Dissenters (Puritans) from politics
Declaration of Indulgence, 1673: Charles II granted free worship to Catholics
Test Act of 1673: all officeholders must take communion in Anglican Church
Was Anglican response to Declaration of Indulgence
Habeas Corpus Act (1679): no arbitrary arrest and speedy trial
Parliament was split and fragmented into two political parties
Tories: king’s supporters, nobles
Whigs: middle-class and merchants; also high aristocracy
Scotland gained its independence in 1660 as result of Restoration
Charles attempted to impose Anglicanism in Scotland; war resulted
James II (1685-1688): sought to Catholicize England; forced to abdicate
èGlorious Revolution (1688)
William III (William of Orange) and Mary: Protestantism secured in England
Act of Toleration: granted religious freedom (except to Catholics, Jews, and
Unitarians
Bill of Rights (1689): constitutional monarchy
British Constitution: consisted of habeas corpus act, petition of right, and bill of rights
John Locke: Two Treatises on Government: philosophical argument for supremacy of
Parliament
Act of Settlement (1701): only Anglican could succeed to the throne
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) – (King William’s War) – (see wars of Louis XIV)
Queen Anne (1702-1714):
Act of Union (1707) – English and Scottish Parliaments merged = Great Britain
Royal veto used for last time
èCabinet System of preparing laws for Parliament developed during early 18th century
Hanoverian Kings: George I, George II, George III
Prime minister became leader of cabinet and responsible to majority party in the
House of Commons.
Robert Walpole (1721-1742) became first prime minister
Weaknesses of British democracy (c. 1800)
Limited suffrage
unfair representation (“rotton boroughs”)
open voting
religious-property requirements for office
hereditary House of Lords
United Provinces of the Netherlands: 17th century = “Golden Age of the Netherlands”
è Confederation of 7 provinces: each province autonomous with its leader--stadtholder
wealthiest and most civilized country in Europe
Calvinism and Arminianism
Amsterdam became center of commerce (replacing Antwerp)
Impact of War of Spanish Succession (Treaty of Utrecht)
Sweden: Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32) reorganized gov’t; nobles dominated army & bureaucracy
èAbsolutism: derived from belief in “divine right of kings”
sovereignty: embodied in the person of the ruler
Jean Bodin (1530-96): gave theoretical basis for absolutist states; wrote during Fr. civil wars
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679: Leviathan
state of nature: anarchy results; central drive in every man is power
Man’s life in a “state of nature” was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short strong,”
Ideas most closely identified with Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism (18th c.)
è Constitutionalism
John Locke, Second Treatise – natural rights: life, liberty and property
state of nature: humans reasonable & well disposed but handicapped by lack of gov’t
(Note: Rousseau’s “state of nature”-- humans essentially good but a few men take
property and resources corrupting communities. i.e., civilization corrupted humans; sought economic equality whereas Locke sought equality of opportunity)
French Absolutism in late 16th through mid-17th centuries
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610) – Bourbon dynasty
Duke of Sully (1560-1641): his reforms enhanced power of the monarchy
mercantilism: increased role of state in the economy
reduced royal debt, reformed tax collection, and improved transportation
Louis XIII (1610-43):
His regency plagued by corruption & mismanagement (mom ruled until he was of age)
è Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642): laid foundation for absolutism in France
Intendant System: sought to weaken nobility
Replaced local officials w/ civil servants who reported directly to the king
Largely filled by middle-class
Further developed mercantilism: increased taxation to fund military
Peace of Alais (1629): Huguenots lost fortified cities & Protestant armies
Began dictionary to standardize the French language
Foreign policy, esp. 30 Years’ War, weakened Hapsburg Empire
è Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) – the “Sun King” L’état, c’est moi (“the state is myself”)
Best model of absolutism in Europe
Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661) : controlled France while Louis XIV a child
The Fronde: aborted revolution directed against Mazarin
“Divine Right theory of rule”: Bishop Jacques Bossuet
France had largest population in Europe (17 million): Accounted for 20% of pop.
Versailles Palace: became a pleasure prison for the French nobility
Religious Policies
Edict of Fountainbleau—revoked Edict of Nantes
Repressed Jansenism (a kind of Calvinism within Catholic Church)
Mercantilism
Jean Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683):promoted mercantilism esp. “bullionism”
His goals was self-sufficiency for France; built roads & canals; gov’t supported monopolies; cracked down on guilds
è By 1683, France leading industrial country: textiles, mirrors, lacemaking,
foundries for steel making and firearms
Weaknesses:
Poor peasant conditions (esp. taxation) resulted in large emigration
Louis opted for army instead of navy; France later lost naval wars w/ England
War in later years nullified Colbert’s gains; Louis at war for 2/3 of his reign
French Classicism
Art: Nicholas Poussin (1593-1665)
Drama: Moliere (1622-1673)
Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)
è Wars of Louis XIV: initially successful but eventually ruinous to France
Creation of modern army
William of Orange (later King William III of England) thwarted Louis’ expansionism
War of Devolution (First Dutch War), 1667-68
Second Dutch War (1672-78) – Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland
Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79): France took Franche-Comté from Spain
League of Augsburg (formed in 1686): HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Rep.
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) – ( King William’s War): ended in status quo
William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.
War of Spanish Succession (1701-13) – (Queen Anne’s War)
will of Charles II (Hapsburg king): all Spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV
Grand Alliance: England, Dutch Rep., HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy
Battle of Blenheim (1704)
Treaty of Utrecht (1713):
Britain was biggest winner: gained asiento from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca.
partitioned Spanish possessions: Belgium given to Austria
Louis’ grandson enthroned, prevented unification of Bourbon dynasties.
Kings recognized in Sardinia (Savoy) and Prussia (Brandenburg)
Costs of Louis XIV’s wars: destroyed French economy, depopulation, weakened Louis XIV.
è Decline of the Spanish Empire (although it remained most powerful military until mid-17th c.)
Spanish Armada, 1588
loss of middle class: Moriscos and Marranos (+ Moors and Jews a century earlier)
inflation
taxation
large number of privileged people who hated work
religion overshadowed politics
defeat in 30 Years’ War: politically and economically disastrous
1640, Portugal reestablished independence.
Treaty of the Pyranees (1659): marked end of Spain as a Great Power
loss of parts of Spanish Netherlands and territory in northern Spain to France
Population in 1660 had declined to 5.5 million from 7.5 million in 1550
Charles II (1665-1700): one of worst rulers in Hapsburg history
No heir to throne resulted in War of Spanish Succession
Spain lost most possessions at Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Decline of Spain exemplified in Don Quixote by Miguel Cervantes (1605)
Constitutionalism in England
James I: belief in “divine right of kings”
King of Scotland; son of Mary “Queen of Scots”
Leadership of Church went to those with Arminian beliefs (predestination but
with “good works”)
Archbishop Laud tried to impose Catholic-style ritual; Puritans dismayed
King claimed “no bishop, no king” to Puritan demand to end bishop control.
Monarchy plagued by lack of revenue (expensive was of Elizabeth drained treasury)
Charles I (1625-1649): sought to rule without Parliament and to control the Anglican Church
Petition of Right, 1628: Parliament attempt to bribe king (taxes) in return for
accepting Parliament’s right to tax, habeas corpus, no quartering, and no
martial law in peacetime
Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629; did not reconvene until 1640
Religious persecution most important reason for civil war: led by Archbishop Laud
Long Parliament – summoned in 1640 (after failure of 2-month “Short Parliament”)
In return for granting taxation, Parliament made demands:
certain high leaders be tried: (Laud eventually executed)
Star Chamber abolished
Parliament could not be dissolved w/o its consent
è The English Civil War (Puritan Revolution; Great Rebellion) – 1642-1649
Cavaliers: supported the king
Roundheads, Puritans opposed king; Oliver Cromwell led “New Model Army”
major issues of the war
Battle of Nasby: Final major battle of war; Scottish Army assisted Cromwell
Division resulted between Presbyterians in Parliament (majority) and soldiers who
were independent and sought congregationalism
New Sects:
Levellers: Radical religious revolutionaries; sought social and political reform.
Quakers: believed in “inner light”; rejected church authority; pacifists
“Rump Parliament”: Pride’s Purge removed all non-Puritans and Presbyterians
from Parliament
Charles I beheaded in 1649
Interregnum: 1649-1660 rule without king
The Commonwealth (1649-1653): a republic – abolished monarch and House of Lords
The Protectorate (1653-1659), Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Dictatorship)
è The Restoration (1660-1688)
Parliament in 1660 reelected according to old franchise: Anglicans back in power
Charles II “The Merry Monarch” (1660-1685): Stuarts restored to the throne
Declaration of Breda: Charles agreed to abide by Parliament’s demands
The Clarendon Code, 1661: Anglicans excluded Dissenters (Puritans) from politics
Declaration of Indulgence, 1673: Charles II granted free worship to Catholics
Test Act of 1673: all officeholders must take communion in Anglican Church
Was Anglican response to Declaration of Indulgence
Habeas Corpus Act (1679): no arbitrary arrest and speedy trial
Parliament was split and fragmented into two political parties
Tories: king’s supporters, nobles
Whigs: middle-class and merchants; also high aristocracy
Scotland gained its independence in 1660 as result of Restoration
Charles attempted to impose Anglicanism in Scotland; war resulted
James II (1685-1688): sought to Catholicize England; forced to abdicate
èGlorious Revolution (1688)
William III (William of Orange) and Mary: Protestantism secured in England
Act of Toleration: granted religious freedom (except to Catholics, Jews, and
Unitarians
Bill of Rights (1689): constitutional monarchy
British Constitution: consisted of habeas corpus act, petition of right, and bill of rights
John Locke: Two Treatises on Government: philosophical argument for supremacy of
Parliament
Act of Settlement (1701): only Anglican could succeed to the throne
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) – (King William’s War) – (see wars of Louis XIV)
Queen Anne (1702-1714):
Act of Union (1707) – English and Scottish Parliaments merged = Great Britain
Royal veto used for last time
èCabinet System of preparing laws for Parliament developed during early 18th century
Hanoverian Kings: George I, George II, George III
Prime minister became leader of cabinet and responsible to majority party in the
House of Commons.
Robert Walpole (1721-1742) became first prime minister
Weaknesses of British democracy (c. 1800)
Limited suffrage
unfair representation (“rotton boroughs”)
open voting
religious-property requirements for office
hereditary House of Lords
United Provinces of the Netherlands: 17th century = “Golden Age of the Netherlands”
è Confederation of 7 provinces: each province autonomous with its leader--stadtholder
wealthiest and most civilized country in Europe
Calvinism and Arminianism
Amsterdam became center of commerce (replacing Antwerp)
Impact of War of Spanish Succession (Treaty of Utrecht)
Sweden: Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32) reorganized gov’t; nobles dominated army & bureaucracy
The Protestant Reformation
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
Causes of the Reformation
Corruption in the Catholic Church: simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (official
holding more than one office), absenteeism (official not participating in benefices), sale of indulgences, nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis), moral decline of the papacy, clerical ignorance
Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Critics of the Church: emphasize a personal relationship with God as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life: Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
è Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519) authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
95 Theses: Criticized sale of indulgences:
Contrast Lutheranism with Catholicism (see separate hand out).
John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520; Luther denied both the
authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council
excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Diet of Worms (1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and
sentence execution through stake-burning
Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530: Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and
Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Impact on Women: stressed marriage and the Christian home
marriage was a woman’s career
women should be educated – schools for girls (Philip Melancthon)
Spread of Protestantism
è Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve hegemony of Catholicism
Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic)
political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to
defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism (feudalism)
Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement
As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of believers with no
connection to any state
Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant and
Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists
Millennarians: sect that expected imminent return of Christ
Unitarianism: denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Michael Servetus a major figure
Luther’s views on new sects and the peasantry: did not believe in violent protest nor
legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism
Denmark, Sweden became Lutheran
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
è John Calvin (1509-1564) Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Calvinism: predestination, the “elect,” Puritan or Protestant work ethic.
Most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Michael Servetus (1511-1553): Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake
è Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (1505-1572); presbyters governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority) in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy – heavily Catholic
Reformation in England
John Wycliffe (1329-1384): Lollards
Henry VIII: 2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; “Defender of the Faith”
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
excommunication by Pope Paul III
Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his divorce
è Church of England (Anglican Church)
Act of Supremacy (1934): King is now the head of the English Church
Execution of Thomas More
1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain certain Catholic sacraments
Thomas Cromwell: Oversaw development of king’s bureaucracy
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) tries to reimpose Catholicism
Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back to support Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – the “Virgin Queen”
è effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
Mary Stuart (“Bloody Mary”) executed
1563, Thirty-Nine Articles: defined creed of Anglican Church
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the church; Pilgrims left for
Holland and then America
THE CATHOLIC COUNTER REFORMATION (also called Catholic Reformation)
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
è Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in military fashion
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos (Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states: Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected significantly
èCouncil of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma four next 4 centuries
Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms: abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed, sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
èResults of Reformation
· The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
· Religious enthusiasm was rekindled – similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages.
· Abuses remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerably remedied by the 17th century.
· Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.
Marx and Weber theses:
Marx: capitalism (work ethic) led to Protestantism – favored by middle class
Weber: capitalism furthered Protestantism but did not cause it.
RELIGIOUS WARS: 1560-1648
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559: ends Habsburg Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars)
France kept Holy Roman Empire from gaining hegemony in Germany, inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe
Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) in shape of grill
Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of
earlier Christian Crusades)
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) reimposes Catholicism in England
Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary’s edict
Elizabeth helps Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Spanish Armada, 1588:
French civil wars (at least 9 in last half of 16th c.)
Concordat of Bologna, 1516: French monarchy now controlled Gallican Church
War of the Three Henrys: civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot faction
Catharine de’ Medici: (a Valois) opposed to Huguenots and Catholic Guise family
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre: Huguenots massacred at Catherine’s order
è Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) (1553-1610): first Bourbon king
Edict of Nantes, 1598: granted religious toleration to Huguenots
politiques: monarchs who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)
Netherlands
William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against Inquisition
United Provinces of the Netherlands,1581 (Dutch Republic)
Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium)
closing of the Scheldt River: demise of Antwerp and rise of Amsterdam
èThirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Four phases of the war:
Bohemian
Defenestration of Prague: triggers war in Bohemia
Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Danish: height of Catholic forces during the war
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634): paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Edict of Restitution (1629): emperor declared all church territories secularized since
1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Swedish: Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase
Gustavus Adolphus: pushed back Catholic forces back to Bohemia
Battle of Breitenfeld, 1630
Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
French: “International Phase”
Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Hapsburg-Valois Wars)
è Treaty of Westphalia (1648): ended Catholic Reformation in Germany
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith)
Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed
Dutch and Swiss independence
300+ German states became sovereign
Results of 30 Years’ War
Germany physically devastated (as much as 1/3 of pop. in certain areas perished)
End to wars of religion
Beginning of rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands
Causes of the Reformation
Corruption in the Catholic Church: simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (official
holding more than one office), absenteeism (official not participating in benefices), sale of indulgences, nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis), moral decline of the papacy, clerical ignorance
Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Critics of the Church: emphasize a personal relationship with God as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life: Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
è Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519) authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
95 Theses: Criticized sale of indulgences:
Contrast Lutheranism with Catholicism (see separate hand out).
John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520; Luther denied both the
authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council
excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Diet of Worms (1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and
sentence execution through stake-burning
Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530: Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and
Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Impact on Women: stressed marriage and the Christian home
marriage was a woman’s career
women should be educated – schools for girls (Philip Melancthon)
Spread of Protestantism
è Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve hegemony of Catholicism
Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic)
political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to
defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism (feudalism)
Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement
As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of believers with no
connection to any state
Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant and
Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists
Millennarians: sect that expected imminent return of Christ
Unitarianism: denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Michael Servetus a major figure
Luther’s views on new sects and the peasantry: did not believe in violent protest nor
legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism
Denmark, Sweden became Lutheran
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
è John Calvin (1509-1564) Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Calvinism: predestination, the “elect,” Puritan or Protestant work ethic.
Most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Michael Servetus (1511-1553): Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake
è Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (1505-1572); presbyters governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority) in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy – heavily Catholic
Reformation in England
John Wycliffe (1329-1384): Lollards
Henry VIII: 2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; “Defender of the Faith”
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
excommunication by Pope Paul III
Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his divorce
è Church of England (Anglican Church)
Act of Supremacy (1934): King is now the head of the English Church
Execution of Thomas More
1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain certain Catholic sacraments
Thomas Cromwell: Oversaw development of king’s bureaucracy
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) tries to reimpose Catholicism
Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back to support Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – the “Virgin Queen”
è effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
Mary Stuart (“Bloody Mary”) executed
1563, Thirty-Nine Articles: defined creed of Anglican Church
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the church; Pilgrims left for
Holland and then America
THE CATHOLIC COUNTER REFORMATION (also called Catholic Reformation)
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
è Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in military fashion
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos (Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states: Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected significantly
èCouncil of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma four next 4 centuries
Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms: abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed, sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
èResults of Reformation
· The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
· Religious enthusiasm was rekindled – similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages.
· Abuses remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerably remedied by the 17th century.
· Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.
Marx and Weber theses:
Marx: capitalism (work ethic) led to Protestantism – favored by middle class
Weber: capitalism furthered Protestantism but did not cause it.
RELIGIOUS WARS: 1560-1648
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559: ends Habsburg Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars)
France kept Holy Roman Empire from gaining hegemony in Germany, inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe
Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) in shape of grill
Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of
earlier Christian Crusades)
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) reimposes Catholicism in England
Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary’s edict
Elizabeth helps Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Spanish Armada, 1588:
French civil wars (at least 9 in last half of 16th c.)
Concordat of Bologna, 1516: French monarchy now controlled Gallican Church
War of the Three Henrys: civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot faction
Catharine de’ Medici: (a Valois) opposed to Huguenots and Catholic Guise family
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre: Huguenots massacred at Catherine’s order
è Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) (1553-1610): first Bourbon king
Edict of Nantes, 1598: granted religious toleration to Huguenots
politiques: monarchs who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)
Netherlands
William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against Inquisition
United Provinces of the Netherlands,1581 (Dutch Republic)
Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium)
closing of the Scheldt River: demise of Antwerp and rise of Amsterdam
èThirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Four phases of the war:
Bohemian
Defenestration of Prague: triggers war in Bohemia
Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Danish: height of Catholic forces during the war
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634): paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Edict of Restitution (1629): emperor declared all church territories secularized since
1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Swedish: Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase
Gustavus Adolphus: pushed back Catholic forces back to Bohemia
Battle of Breitenfeld, 1630
Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
French: “International Phase”
Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Hapsburg-Valois Wars)
è Treaty of Westphalia (1648): ended Catholic Reformation in Germany
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith)
Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed
Dutch and Swiss independence
300+ German states became sovereign
Results of 30 Years’ War
Germany physically devastated (as much as 1/3 of pop. in certain areas perished)
End to wars of religion
Beginning of rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands
Commerical Revolution 1500-1700
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION (16th century: approx. 1500-1700)
è Significance: brought about age of discovery and exploration
Causes:
population growth: 70 million in 1500; 90 million in 1600
“price revolution”: (long slow upward trend); increased food prices, increased volume of $,
influx of gold & silver
rise in capitalism (laissez-faire):entrepreneurs; bourgeoisie at the forefront
banking: Fuggers, Antwerp in 16th c., Amsterdam in 17th c.
chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain area (BEIC, DEIC)
joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for common purpose
(forerunner of modern corporation)
stock markets: e.g., Bourse in Germany
“Putting-out” Industry
new industries: cloth production, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons &
muskets
consumer goods: rice, sugar, tea
mercantilism: nations sought self-sufficient economy; “bullionism”
AGE OF EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST (“Old Imperialism”)
Causes for exploration:
Christian Crusaders in 11th & 14th centuries created European interest in Asia and Middle East
Francis Xavier: Catholic missionary in 16th c.
Rise of nation states (“New Monarchs”) resulted in competition for empires and trade
Portugal and Spain sought to break the Italian monopoly on trade with Asia.
Technology facilitated sea travel: astrolab, better maps
Commercial revolution resulted in capitalist investments in overseas exploration
Religious desire to convert pagan peoples in the New World
Impact of Renaissance: search for knowledge, adventurism, monopoly of Italian trade with East
Cartography
Evangelista Toscanelli (1608-1647)
Martin Behaim (1459-1507) and Schoner
Portugal
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): financed exploration
Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500): rounded southern tip of Africa
Vasco da Gama (1469-1525): route to India
Alphonso d’Albuquerque (1453-1515): established empire in Spice Islands after 1510
Pedro Cabral (1467-1520): sighted Brazil
Amerigo Vespucci: “America” named after him
Spain: Explorers
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
Bartholomew de las Casas (1474-1566) – writings helped spread “black legend”
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): New World divided by Spain and Portugal; Pope Leo VI
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517): Isthmus of Panama
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521): circumnavigation of the globe
è Spain: Conquistadores: began creating empires by conquering Indians
Hernando Cortès (1485-1547): Aztecs
Francisco Pizzaro (1478-1541): Incas
Mestizos: mixed white and Indian descent
Creoles: American-born Spaniards
Audencias: Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to viceroy and highest judicial body.
Encomienda: Indians worked for owner certain # days per week; retained other parcels to work for themselves.
France
Giovanni da Verrazano (1480-1527): explored northern Atlantic coast of modern-day U.S.
Jacques Cartier (1491-1557): search for Northwest Passage (explored Canada)
Samuel de Champlain: “Father of New France”
England
John (1425-1500) and Sebastian (1474-1557) Cabot: explored northeast coat of N. America
Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596): led English “sea dogs” against Spanish shipping
Sir Martin Frobisher (1535-1594): northeastern Canadian coast
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), Roanoke Settlement
è Significance: brought about age of discovery and exploration
Causes:
population growth: 70 million in 1500; 90 million in 1600
“price revolution”: (long slow upward trend); increased food prices, increased volume of $,
influx of gold & silver
rise in capitalism (laissez-faire):entrepreneurs; bourgeoisie at the forefront
banking: Fuggers, Antwerp in 16th c., Amsterdam in 17th c.
chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain area (BEIC, DEIC)
joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for common purpose
(forerunner of modern corporation)
stock markets: e.g., Bourse in Germany
“Putting-out” Industry
new industries: cloth production, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons &
muskets
consumer goods: rice, sugar, tea
mercantilism: nations sought self-sufficient economy; “bullionism”
AGE OF EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST (“Old Imperialism”)
Causes for exploration:
Christian Crusaders in 11th & 14th centuries created European interest in Asia and Middle East
Francis Xavier: Catholic missionary in 16th c.
Rise of nation states (“New Monarchs”) resulted in competition for empires and trade
Portugal and Spain sought to break the Italian monopoly on trade with Asia.
Technology facilitated sea travel: astrolab, better maps
Commercial revolution resulted in capitalist investments in overseas exploration
Religious desire to convert pagan peoples in the New World
Impact of Renaissance: search for knowledge, adventurism, monopoly of Italian trade with East
Cartography
Evangelista Toscanelli (1608-1647)
Martin Behaim (1459-1507) and Schoner
Portugal
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): financed exploration
Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500): rounded southern tip of Africa
Vasco da Gama (1469-1525): route to India
Alphonso d’Albuquerque (1453-1515): established empire in Spice Islands after 1510
Pedro Cabral (1467-1520): sighted Brazil
Amerigo Vespucci: “America” named after him
Spain: Explorers
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
Bartholomew de las Casas (1474-1566) – writings helped spread “black legend”
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): New World divided by Spain and Portugal; Pope Leo VI
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517): Isthmus of Panama
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521): circumnavigation of the globe
è Spain: Conquistadores: began creating empires by conquering Indians
Hernando Cortès (1485-1547): Aztecs
Francisco Pizzaro (1478-1541): Incas
Mestizos: mixed white and Indian descent
Creoles: American-born Spaniards
Audencias: Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to viceroy and highest judicial body.
Encomienda: Indians worked for owner certain # days per week; retained other parcels to work for themselves.
France
Giovanni da Verrazano (1480-1527): explored northern Atlantic coast of modern-day U.S.
Jacques Cartier (1491-1557): search for Northwest Passage (explored Canada)
Samuel de Champlain: “Father of New France”
England
John (1425-1500) and Sebastian (1474-1557) Cabot: explored northeast coat of N. America
Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596): led English “sea dogs” against Spanish shipping
Sir Martin Frobisher (1535-1594): northeastern Canadian coast
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), Roanoke Settlement
The Renaissance
THE RENAISSANCE
The Modern World; contrast with the Later Middle Ages
Renaissance: mainly in Italy (1300-1600)
Origins of Renaissance: Jacob Burckhardt – claimed period in distinct contrast to Middle Ages
Northern Italian cities developed international trade: Genoa, Venice, Milan
popolo (middle class) took power in 13th century; republican gov’t short-lived
signori (despots) or oligarchies (rule of merchant aristocracies) by 1300
commenda: Contract between merchant and “merchant-adventurer” who agreed to
take goods to distant locations and return with the proceeds (for 1/3 of profits)
Politics among the Italian City-States
o Major city-states and figures
Republic of Florence (Included Republic of Genoa) – Medici family
Cosimo De’Medici (1389-1464): allied with other powerful families of
Florence and became unofficial ruler of the republic
Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492): lavish patron of the arts
Duchy of Milan -- Sforza family (Caterina Sforza (1463-1509), great art patron)
Rome, the Papal States – papacy (“Renaissance popes”)
Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Venice, Venetian Republic
Isabella d’Este (1474-1539): most famous Renaissance female ruler (ruled Mantua)
condottieri: leaders of private armies hired by cities for military purposes
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in Florence 1494-98; (predicted French
invasion due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states); burned at the stake
Charles VIII (1483-1498), French invasions of Italy; Italy became battleground for
international ambitions
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) -- The Prince (1513) – Cesare Borgia
Charles V, sack of Rome in 1527: symbolizes end of Renaissance in Italy
èHumanism -- Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature
Petrarch—“Dark Ages” metaphor; “father of humanism” and 1st modern writer, literature no
longer subordinate to religion
Boccacio – Decameron: aimed to impart wisdom of human character and behavior.
Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Oration on the Dignity of Man; Platonic academy
Education: (emphasis on Latin and Greek)
Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) – The Book of the Courtier
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) – wrote history of Florence; division of historical periods;
narrative form; civic humanist; first to use term “humanism”
Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)—On the False Donation of Constantine (1444); study of Latin
Individualism/ secularism: “man is the measure of all things”
virtú: the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit
Printing press: Johann Gutenberg – spread of humanistic literature to rest of Europe.
Renaissance Art
Florence the leader in Renaissance art esp. in quattrocento (1400s_
Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) – contemporary Renaissance art historian.
Giotto (1266-1336) – considered 1st Renaissance artist, use of chiaroscuro
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) – architect of cathedrals (il duomo in Florence)
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), architect of cathedrals.
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) -- sculptor: bronze doors for Florentine baptistry
Donatello (1386-1466 – sculptor: David (young)
Masaccio (1401-1428) painter: real, nude human figures
Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516) – Portrait of a Condottiere
Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) – painter: Birth of Venus
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1574) – goldsmith and sculptor
“High Renaissance” centered in Rome (1500-1527) – cinquecento (1500s)
Most worldly of Renaissance popes – Alexander VI (1492-1503); Julius II (1503-
1513); and Leo X (1513-1521)
Characteristics: classical balance, harmony, restraint
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) – Last Supper, Mona Lisa; “Renaissance Man”
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) – School of Athens
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), “universal man”; Sistine Chapel; David;
pieta: Mary holding limp body of Christ considered most perfect marble sculpture
Titian
Society
Women: Christine de Pisan (1363?-1434?): The City of Ladies; The Book of Three Virtues
Perhaps Europe’s first feminist
Blacks: exotic and highly prized
Northern Renaissance
è Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers to improve society
Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In Praise of Folly
most famous intellectual of his times
criticized the church: “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched”
Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an island; but to
achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights
Jacques Lefevre d’Etables (1454-1536): leading French humanist; produced 5
versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative Bible.
Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517): reformed Spanish clergy and church,
Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition
Northern Renaissance Art
Low Countries produced especially important artists
Jan Van Eyck – Flemish painter, detailed realistic works
Peter Brueghel the Elder (1520-1569)—focused on lives of ordinary people
Bosch –master of symbolism and fantasy; religious and folk legends as themes
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) German – foremost northern Renaissance artist.
Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543): Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More
Writers
Francois Rabelais’ (1494-1553) Gargantua and Pantagruel
Montaigne (1533-1592) – developed essay form; modern skepticism
Germany
Regiomontanus; Nicholas of Cusa: mathematics
Copernicus : heliocentric theory
Cartography: Behaim and Schoner
Fugger family in Germany (esp. Jacob Fugger (1459-1525): international banking,
patronized the arts
Myscticism: Meister Eckhart, Thomas á Kempis, Gerard Groote: belief in personal
relationship with God
Include other Germans listed above
England:
Elizabethan Period
William Shakespeare
Jacobean Period (James I)
Authorized Bible, 1604
John Milton
Spain: Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616): Don Quixote
Domenikos El Greco (1541-1614): painter: mannerism
è “New” Monarchs: consolidated power and created Europe’s first modern nation-states
French recovery after 100 Years’ War: Valios line of monarchs
Louis XI “Spider King” (1461-83): large royal army, taxes, power over clergy
Francis I (1515-1547): Condordat of Bologna, taille
England: after 100 Years’ War
War of the Roses – victorious House of Lancaster = rise of Tudor dynasty:
Henry VII (1489-1509): Star Chamber (nobles tried w/o jury; often tortured)
Henry VIII (1509-1547): English reformation
Spain
Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (1478-1516) & Isabella of Castile (1474-1504):
1492: unified Spain; Reconquista—removed last of Moors; expulsion of
Jews
hermandades: alliance of cities to oppose nobles
Spanish Inquisition: monarchy enforced authority of the national church
Habsburg Empire: (Holy Roman Empire)
Maximilian I (1493-1519): gained much territory with marriage to Mary of Burgundy
Charles V: most powerful ruler in Europe (1st Holy Roman Emperor)
ruled Spanish and Austrian Hapsburg branches, sacked Rome in 1527
sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany
Life in the 16th and 17th centuries
Compare to life during the Later Middle Ages
Hierarchy:
Countryside: manorial lords, peasants, landless workers
Cities: merchants (bourgeoisie), artisans, laborers
education or wealth became means of moving up social ladder (for the fortunate few)
Demography: population growth leveled by 1650; cities saw larger increase than countryside
Family: nuclear family; patriarchal; avg. lifespans – men = 27, women = 25!; divorce rare
Witch Hunts: as many as 100,000 executed between 1500-1700; mostly elderly women
Food and Diet: commoners relied on bread (& beer); upper-classes enjoyed meats, cheese,
sweets; English ate the best; famines were reality in many parts
Slavery:
introduced by Portuguese
blacks seen as exotic, highly prized in certain areas
“American form” of slavery existed in Mediterranean sugar plantations
The Modern World; contrast with the Later Middle Ages
Renaissance: mainly in Italy (1300-1600)
Origins of Renaissance: Jacob Burckhardt – claimed period in distinct contrast to Middle Ages
Northern Italian cities developed international trade: Genoa, Venice, Milan
popolo (middle class) took power in 13th century; republican gov’t short-lived
signori (despots) or oligarchies (rule of merchant aristocracies) by 1300
commenda: Contract between merchant and “merchant-adventurer” who agreed to
take goods to distant locations and return with the proceeds (for 1/3 of profits)
Politics among the Italian City-States
o Major city-states and figures
Republic of Florence (Included Republic of Genoa) – Medici family
Cosimo De’Medici (1389-1464): allied with other powerful families of
Florence and became unofficial ruler of the republic
Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492): lavish patron of the arts
Duchy of Milan -- Sforza family (Caterina Sforza (1463-1509), great art patron)
Rome, the Papal States – papacy (“Renaissance popes”)
Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Venice, Venetian Republic
Isabella d’Este (1474-1539): most famous Renaissance female ruler (ruled Mantua)
condottieri: leaders of private armies hired by cities for military purposes
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in Florence 1494-98; (predicted French
invasion due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states); burned at the stake
Charles VIII (1483-1498), French invasions of Italy; Italy became battleground for
international ambitions
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) -- The Prince (1513) – Cesare Borgia
Charles V, sack of Rome in 1527: symbolizes end of Renaissance in Italy
èHumanism -- Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature
Petrarch—“Dark Ages” metaphor; “father of humanism” and 1st modern writer, literature no
longer subordinate to religion
Boccacio – Decameron: aimed to impart wisdom of human character and behavior.
Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Oration on the Dignity of Man; Platonic academy
Education: (emphasis on Latin and Greek)
Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) – The Book of the Courtier
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) – wrote history of Florence; division of historical periods;
narrative form; civic humanist; first to use term “humanism”
Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)—On the False Donation of Constantine (1444); study of Latin
Individualism/ secularism: “man is the measure of all things”
virtú: the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit
Printing press: Johann Gutenberg – spread of humanistic literature to rest of Europe.
Renaissance Art
Florence the leader in Renaissance art esp. in quattrocento (1400s_
Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) – contemporary Renaissance art historian.
Giotto (1266-1336) – considered 1st Renaissance artist, use of chiaroscuro
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) – architect of cathedrals (il duomo in Florence)
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), architect of cathedrals.
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) -- sculptor: bronze doors for Florentine baptistry
Donatello (1386-1466 – sculptor: David (young)
Masaccio (1401-1428) painter: real, nude human figures
Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516) – Portrait of a Condottiere
Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) – painter: Birth of Venus
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1574) – goldsmith and sculptor
“High Renaissance” centered in Rome (1500-1527) – cinquecento (1500s)
Most worldly of Renaissance popes – Alexander VI (1492-1503); Julius II (1503-
1513); and Leo X (1513-1521)
Characteristics: classical balance, harmony, restraint
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) – Last Supper, Mona Lisa; “Renaissance Man”
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) – School of Athens
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), “universal man”; Sistine Chapel; David;
pieta: Mary holding limp body of Christ considered most perfect marble sculpture
Titian
Society
Women: Christine de Pisan (1363?-1434?): The City of Ladies; The Book of Three Virtues
Perhaps Europe’s first feminist
Blacks: exotic and highly prized
Northern Renaissance
è Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers to improve society
Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In Praise of Folly
most famous intellectual of his times
criticized the church: “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched”
Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an island; but to
achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights
Jacques Lefevre d’Etables (1454-1536): leading French humanist; produced 5
versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative Bible.
Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517): reformed Spanish clergy and church,
Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition
Northern Renaissance Art
Low Countries produced especially important artists
Jan Van Eyck – Flemish painter, detailed realistic works
Peter Brueghel the Elder (1520-1569)—focused on lives of ordinary people
Bosch –master of symbolism and fantasy; religious and folk legends as themes
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) German – foremost northern Renaissance artist.
Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543): Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More
Writers
Francois Rabelais’ (1494-1553) Gargantua and Pantagruel
Montaigne (1533-1592) – developed essay form; modern skepticism
Germany
Regiomontanus; Nicholas of Cusa: mathematics
Copernicus : heliocentric theory
Cartography: Behaim and Schoner
Fugger family in Germany (esp. Jacob Fugger (1459-1525): international banking,
patronized the arts
Myscticism: Meister Eckhart, Thomas á Kempis, Gerard Groote: belief in personal
relationship with God
Include other Germans listed above
England:
Elizabethan Period
William Shakespeare
Jacobean Period (James I)
Authorized Bible, 1604
John Milton
Spain: Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616): Don Quixote
Domenikos El Greco (1541-1614): painter: mannerism
è “New” Monarchs: consolidated power and created Europe’s first modern nation-states
French recovery after 100 Years’ War: Valios line of monarchs
Louis XI “Spider King” (1461-83): large royal army, taxes, power over clergy
Francis I (1515-1547): Condordat of Bologna, taille
England: after 100 Years’ War
War of the Roses – victorious House of Lancaster = rise of Tudor dynasty:
Henry VII (1489-1509): Star Chamber (nobles tried w/o jury; often tortured)
Henry VIII (1509-1547): English reformation
Spain
Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (1478-1516) & Isabella of Castile (1474-1504):
1492: unified Spain; Reconquista—removed last of Moors; expulsion of
Jews
hermandades: alliance of cities to oppose nobles
Spanish Inquisition: monarchy enforced authority of the national church
Habsburg Empire: (Holy Roman Empire)
Maximilian I (1493-1519): gained much territory with marriage to Mary of Burgundy
Charles V: most powerful ruler in Europe (1st Holy Roman Emperor)
ruled Spanish and Austrian Hapsburg branches, sacked Rome in 1527
sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany
Life in the 16th and 17th centuries
Compare to life during the Later Middle Ages
Hierarchy:
Countryside: manorial lords, peasants, landless workers
Cities: merchants (bourgeoisie), artisans, laborers
education or wealth became means of moving up social ladder (for the fortunate few)
Demography: population growth leveled by 1650; cities saw larger increase than countryside
Family: nuclear family; patriarchal; avg. lifespans – men = 27, women = 25!; divorce rare
Witch Hunts: as many as 100,000 executed between 1500-1700; mostly elderly women
Food and Diet: commoners relied on bread (& beer); upper-classes enjoyed meats, cheese,
sweets; English ate the best; famines were reality in many parts
Slavery:
introduced by Portuguese
blacks seen as exotic, highly prized in certain areas
“American form” of slavery existed in Mediterranean sugar plantations
Later Middle Ages
Crisis of the Later Middle Ages:
è Black Death (1347): loss of 1/3 of European population (mostly in cities)
Causes: bubonic plague carried by fleas on Asian black rats; poor sanitation, overcrowded
homes, poor health, poor hygiene, poor housing
Results: Severe impact on European economy; in some areas workers enjoyed higher wages;
best of clergy died (staying behind to help the sick); Jews blamed; serfdom ended in many areas; first enclosure of fields in Britain
Population did not reach pre-plague level until the mid-16th century.
è Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): cause—English lays claim to some French land
Joan of Arc: led French army to victory at Orleans during crucial stage of the war
Results: France kicks England out; creation of modern nation states begin (“New Monarchs”)
Peasant Revolts
Causes: taxation during Hundred Years’ War, desire for higher wages, hostility toward
aristocracy, and higher expectations among peasantry.
English Peasant Revolt (1381):
Jacquerie in France (late 14th-early 15th c.)
Results: revolts crushed; end of serfdom in England c. 1550
è Nationalist literature of the Later Middle Ages – use of the vernacular (national tongue)
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), The Divine Comedy (1321) (also a Renaissance figure)
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400): Canterbury Tales – portrayed English life
Francois Villon (1431-1463): Grand Testament (1461) – greatest poet of Medieval France
portrayed ordinary French life with humor and emotion.
è Crisis in the Catholic Church
Early Criticisms of the church
Marsiglio de Padua: Defender of Peace – Church should be subordinate to the state
Church should be governed by a council of laity and priests superior to pope.
John Wyclif (1320-1384): church should only follow Scripture; English
translation of Bible; his later followers were Lollards
John Huss (1369-1415): ideas similar to Wyclif; nationalist party in Czech (Bohemia)
Hussites: followers of Huss who staged large rebellions in 14th century.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): 7 successive popes resided at Avignon, France
Damaged papal prestige (esp. in England & Germany); Rome’s economy damaged
Great Schism (c. 1377-1417): Further conflict led to election of two popes—one in Rome,
one in France; further hurt prestige of church
Conciliar Movement (1409-1418): ended schism; failed as movement to put power in a
church council; pope’s power still supreme
Life in Later Middle Ages
Marriage: avg. age for men = mid-20s; women = 16-18
divorce was unheard of
economic reasons most important for marriage (love not until 18th-19th centuries)
prostitution in cities (men didn’t marry until later)
Work:
agricultural cycles and church ritual closely linked
small % of men were artisans in towns; protected by guilds
Serfdom reduced in many areas
Recreation: aristocracy – jousting tournaments; common people—archery, wrestling, bull-
baiting, bear-baiting; alcoholism rampant
Laity increasingly managed parish lands
Fur-collar crime: corrupt nobles (esp. England) took advantage of peasantry
Medieval philosophy: scholasticism (St. Thomas Aquinas)
Attempted to reconcile faith and reason by using logic to support Christian doctrine
Worked to reconcile Aristotle’s ideas with Christianity
è Black Death (1347): loss of 1/3 of European population (mostly in cities)
Causes: bubonic plague carried by fleas on Asian black rats; poor sanitation, overcrowded
homes, poor health, poor hygiene, poor housing
Results: Severe impact on European economy; in some areas workers enjoyed higher wages;
best of clergy died (staying behind to help the sick); Jews blamed; serfdom ended in many areas; first enclosure of fields in Britain
Population did not reach pre-plague level until the mid-16th century.
è Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): cause—English lays claim to some French land
Joan of Arc: led French army to victory at Orleans during crucial stage of the war
Results: France kicks England out; creation of modern nation states begin (“New Monarchs”)
Peasant Revolts
Causes: taxation during Hundred Years’ War, desire for higher wages, hostility toward
aristocracy, and higher expectations among peasantry.
English Peasant Revolt (1381):
Jacquerie in France (late 14th-early 15th c.)
Results: revolts crushed; end of serfdom in England c. 1550
è Nationalist literature of the Later Middle Ages – use of the vernacular (national tongue)
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), The Divine Comedy (1321) (also a Renaissance figure)
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400): Canterbury Tales – portrayed English life
Francois Villon (1431-1463): Grand Testament (1461) – greatest poet of Medieval France
portrayed ordinary French life with humor and emotion.
è Crisis in the Catholic Church
Early Criticisms of the church
Marsiglio de Padua: Defender of Peace – Church should be subordinate to the state
Church should be governed by a council of laity and priests superior to pope.
John Wyclif (1320-1384): church should only follow Scripture; English
translation of Bible; his later followers were Lollards
John Huss (1369-1415): ideas similar to Wyclif; nationalist party in Czech (Bohemia)
Hussites: followers of Huss who staged large rebellions in 14th century.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): 7 successive popes resided at Avignon, France
Damaged papal prestige (esp. in England & Germany); Rome’s economy damaged
Great Schism (c. 1377-1417): Further conflict led to election of two popes—one in Rome,
one in France; further hurt prestige of church
Conciliar Movement (1409-1418): ended schism; failed as movement to put power in a
church council; pope’s power still supreme
Life in Later Middle Ages
Marriage: avg. age for men = mid-20s; women = 16-18
divorce was unheard of
economic reasons most important for marriage (love not until 18th-19th centuries)
prostitution in cities (men didn’t marry until later)
Work:
agricultural cycles and church ritual closely linked
small % of men were artisans in towns; protected by guilds
Serfdom reduced in many areas
Recreation: aristocracy – jousting tournaments; common people—archery, wrestling, bull-
baiting, bear-baiting; alcoholism rampant
Laity increasingly managed parish lands
Fur-collar crime: corrupt nobles (esp. England) took advantage of peasantry
Medieval philosophy: scholasticism (St. Thomas Aquinas)
Attempted to reconcile faith and reason by using logic to support Christian doctrine
Worked to reconcile Aristotle’s ideas with Christianity
Sunday, August 5, 2007
The Dawn of a New Era..
Well, the time has come for me to bid U.S. History goodbye for the time being and welcome AP European History into my life. Now in my own personal opinion I must admit U.S. History and I do not have the best relationship (whether it be because I'd rather live in Europe, or simplly because I'm an unpatriotic-country-hating-soon-to-be-arrested-by-the-FBI-and-CIA-heathen... or possibly both). The point is I've always been a more World History kind of gal, the type that likes to consider more of the world than simply one's own relatively insignificant country. Though European history isn't necessarily World history, it is one step closer and I have a feeling it will concern a much broader scope than the tax laws of Wisconsin in the 1900s. Of course it is more than likely that half-way through the year you will find me ranting and raving about how much I hate European History and the waste of time it is blah blah blah... the usual AP class workloaded panic. For now though, I can hope for the best and start the class with some eagerness. So it is time for me to bid adieu to "History Cram APUSH" and bring forth the new and improved "History Cram AP Euro". I'll still leave some APUSH links up for those who need to get their patriotic fix, but from now on this blog has a new focus. *cracks open a bottle of champagne* Au Revior mon amis!
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