Test # 1 Terms Review
Later Middle Ages:
Black Death (1347): loss of 1/3 of European population (mostly in cities)
Causes: bubonic plague carried by fleas on Asian black rats; poor sanitation, overcrowded
homes, poor health, poor hygiene, poor housing
Results: Severe impact on European economy; in some areas workers enjoyed higher wages;
best of clergy died (staying behind to help the sick); Jews blamed; serfdom ended in many areas; first enclosure of fields in Britain
Population did not reach pre-plague level until the mid-16th century.
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): cause—English lays claim to some French land
Joan of Arc: led French army to victory at Orleans during crucial stage of the war
Results: France kicks England out; creation of modern nation states begin (“New Monarchs”)
Peasant Revolts
Causes: taxation during Hundred Years’ War, desire for higher wages, hostility toward
aristocracy, and higher expectations among peasantry.
English Peasant Revolt (1381):
Jacquerie in France (late 14th-early 15th c.)
Results: revolts crushed; end of serfdom in England c. 1550
John Wyclif (1320-1384): church should only follow Scripture; English
translation of Bible; his later followers were Lollards
John Huss (1369-1415): ideas similar to Wyclif; nationalist party in Czech (Bohemia)
Hussites: followers of Huss who staged large rebellions in 14th century.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): 7 successive popes resided at Avignon, France
Damaged papal prestige (esp. in England & Germany); Rome’s economy damaged
Great Schism (c. 1377-1417): Further conflict led to election of two popes—one in Rome,
one in France; further hurt prestige of church
Conciliar Movement (1409-1418): ended schism; failed as movement to put power in a
church council; pope’s power still supreme
scholasticism (St. Thomas Aquinas) – Medieval Philosophy
Attempted to reconcile faith and reason by using logic to support Christian doctrine
Worked to reconcile Aristotle’s ideas with Christianity
RENAISSANCE
Renaissance = re-birth of classical culture
+ the birth of a NEW spirit of self awareness
+ sense of relief after a disastrous 14th century
+ sense of self assertion & celebration of the human spirit / potential
+ Artistic achievement
Brunelleschi - combined gothic and classical architecture
- Florence Cathedral
Donatello: created a flowing sense of reality, especially in the robes and clothes of his subjects
-Judith Slaying Holofernes (1455), demonstrated perspective and is free standing
Massaccio: used light and shading to create perspective, increased the display of human emotion (the human experience became the subject of the painting)
- The Expulsion of Adam and Eve (1425)
- The Holy Trinity (1425)
Botticelli: famous for classical themes and bright colors
- The Birth of Venus (1478)
- Spring (1478)
Leonardo da Vinci: Great master famous for observation of detail and use of perspective
- The Last Supper (1495-98)
- La Giocada (Mona Lisa)
Michelangelo
- Pieta: sculpture of Madonna, new representation
- David: union of classical sculpture and Renaissance style
- Sistine Chapel: overwhelming accomplishment, portrays a narrative of the Christian
creation myth
- Saint Peter's Basilica: Begun by Bramante, finished by Michelangelo
Republic of Florence (Included Republic of Genoa) – Medici family
Cosimo De’Medici (1389-1464): allied with other powerful families of Florence and became unofficial ruler of the republic
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in Florence 1494-98; (predicted French
invasion due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states); burned at the stake
Humanism: Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature; reaction to an intellectual world that was centered on the church doctrine
- Secular outlook, NOT NECESSARILY anti-religious
- Emphasis on human achievement
- Studied and taught “humanities” – liberal arts
- Applied their ideas to spiritual / secular world
- Petarch: “father of Humanism” – Cicero
- Byzantine scholars (fleeing Muslim expansion) were influential
- Developed new standards for studying classical texts and new educational standards
= Liberal Arts: rhetoric, grammar, moral philosophy, philology and history
- intent: boost the abilities of the individual to reason and think
Nicolo Machiavelli: The Prince (1513), discussion of amorality in civic leadership and Discourses on Livy (1519)
- Impact:
1. Intertwining of Classical and Renaissance worlds
2. Explained how and why Princes gained and maintained power
3. Represents the first purely secular understanding of govt.
- removed divine authority
4. First attempt to explain the actions of govt. using a scientific methodology
- Key axiom was Machiavelli’s association of the Prince and peoples interest as the same
- Thus virtuous Prince was defined as a one who gained and maintained power
- Any action that increased a Prince’s virtue was good, thus power became an end that justified any means
Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers to improve society
Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In Praise of Folly most famous intellectual of his times criticized the church: “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched”
- Goal was to unite the individual Christian with textual basis of Christian doctrine
- Attacked scholasticism, superstition and tradition to restore Christ to a central role in people’s lives
Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an island; but to achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights
-society based on reason / mercy (Plato’s Republic + Monastic life)
-no greed, corruption, war or crime (abolished the 7 deadly sins)
- Goal was to instruct people to live a more Christian life
- A society founded on Christian principles would lead to a Christian life
Printing press: Johann Gutenberg – (1450) spread of humanistic literature to rest of Europe.
-1455 movable type and paper emerged resulting in the first printing press.
-in 50 years 9-10 million books were printed.
-Bible is the first book printed by Johann Gutenburg
1. Education increased
2. Enabled government to increase uniformity of law
3. Helped spread newly emerging scientific ideas
4. Standardize language (Latin and Vernacular)
5. Increased the value placed on the discovery of new ideas
Reformation:
1. people form own ideas about religion
2. new ideas spread more quickly
3. people criticize the church more
Myscticism: belief in personal relationship with God; Meister Eckhart, Thomas á Kempis, Gerard Groote:
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
-Reformation: A movement against the Catholic Church starting during the 14th century following the
church abusing their powers (example: indulgences). This movement questioned the Catholic
churches principles and practices, and was led by Luther, Zwingli and Calvin. There was also a
Catholic/counter reformation, reaffirming the churches doctrine and creating the Jesuits.
Causes of the Reformation
Corruption in the Catholic Church: simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (official
holding more than one office), absenteeism (official not participating in benefices), sale of indulgences, nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis), moral decline of the papacy, clerical ignorance
Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Critics of the Church: emphasize a personal relationship with God as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life: Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519) authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
Martin Luther: Leader of the Reformation and founder of Lutheranism. In 1517 he put up the 95 Theses,
beginning the Reformation, which proclaimed all of the problems with the Catholic Church. Luther
placed an importance on the bible, and all people being able to read the bible.
• Began the Protestant reformation, Lutheranism
• 95 Thesis 1517
n††† Salvation by faith alone
n††† No need for sacraments
n††† Bible is the only authority
n††† Consubstantiation
n††† Challenged the concept of monastic life
n††† everyone has an equal relationship with god
n††† don’t need priests
• Salivation by faith alone
• Clergy can marry
• Against the peasant revolts
• Only two Sacraments
• Baptism and Eucharist
John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520; Luther denied both the
authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council ‡ Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Diet of Worms (1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning
Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530: Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and
Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve hegemony of Catholicism
Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic)
political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to
defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism (feudalism)
Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement
As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of believers with no
connection to any state
Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant and
Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists
Millennarians: sect that expected imminent return of Christ
Unitarianism: denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
John Calvin (1509-1564) Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Calvinism: predestination, the “elect,” Puritan or Protestant work ethic.
Most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (1505-1572); presbyters governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority) in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy – heavily Catholic
Henry VIII: 2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; “Defender of the Faith”
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
excommunication by Pope Paul III
Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his divorce
Church of England (Anglican Church)
Act of Supremacy (1934): King is now the head of the English Church
Execution of Thomas More
1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain certain Catholic sacraments
Thomas Cromwell: Oversaw development of king’s bureaucracy
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) tries to reimpose Catholicism
Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back to support Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – the “Virgin Queen”
è effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588
Mary Stuart (“Bloody Mary”) executed
1563, Thirty-Nine Articles: defined creed of Anglican Church
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the church; Pilgrims left for
Holland and then America
THE CATHOLIC COUNTER REFORMATION
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in military fashion
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos (Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states: Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected significantly
Council of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma four next 4 centuries
Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms: abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed, sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
established the local authorities responsibility to select the religion of the area, one faith one king
- Created confusion as princes converted back and forth
- Left no room for moderates
- Both sides philosophical outlook was absolute
- Left no room for moderates, attacked by both sides
- Extremists dominated European politics
Results of Reformation
• The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
• Religious enthusiasm was rekindled – similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages.
• Abuses remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerably remedied by the 17th century.
• Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.
RELIGIOUS WARS: 1560-1648
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559: ends Habsburg Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars)
France kept Holy Roman Empire from gaining hegemony in Germany, inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe
Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) in shape of grill
Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of
earlier Christian Crusades)
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) reimposes Catholicism in England
Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary’s edict
Elizabeth helps Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Spanish Armada, 1588:
French civil wars (at least 9 in last half of 16th c.)
Concordat of Bologna, 1516: French monarchy now controlled Gallican Church
War of the Three Henrys: civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot faction
Catharine de’ Medici: (a Valois) opposed to Huguenots and Catholic Guise family
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre: Huguenots massacred at Catherine’s order
è Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) (1553-1610): first Bourbon king
Edict of Nantes, 1598: granted religious toleration to Huguenots
politiques: monarchs who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)
Netherlands
William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against Inquisition
United Provinces of the Netherlands,1581 (Dutch Republic)
Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium)
closing of the Scheldt River: demise of Antwerp and rise of Amsterdam
Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Four phases of the war:
Bohemian
Defenestration of Prague: triggers war in Bohemia
Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Danish: height of Catholic forces during the war
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634): paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Edict of Restitution (1629): emperor declared all church territories secularized since
1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Swedish: Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase
Gustavus Adolphus: pushed back Catholic forces back to Bohemia
Battle of Breitenfeld, 1630
Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
French: “International Phase”
Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Hapsburg-Valois Wars)
è Treaty of Westphalia (1648): ended Catholic Reformation in Germany
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith)
Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed
Dutch and Swiss independence
300+ German states became sovereign
Results of 30 Years’ War
Germany physically devastated (as much as 1/3 of pop. in certain areas perished)
End to wars of religion
Beginning of rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands
