The Protestant Reformation

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
Causes of the Reformation
Corruption in the Catholic Church: simony (sale of church offices), pluralism (official
holding more than one office), absenteeism (official not participating in benefices), sale of indulgences, nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis), moral decline of the papacy, clerical ignorance
Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Critics of the Church: emphasize a personal relationship with God as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life: Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
è Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519) authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
95 Theses: Criticized sale of indulgences:
Contrast Lutheranism with Catholicism (see separate hand out).
John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520; Luther denied both the
authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council
excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Diet of Worms (1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and
sentence execution through stake-burning
Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530: Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and
Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Impact on Women: stressed marriage and the Christian home
marriage was a woman’s career
women should be educated – schools for girls (Philip Melancthon)
Spread of Protestantism
è Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve hegemony of Catholicism
Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic)
political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to
defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism (feudalism)
Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement
As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of believers with no
connection to any state
Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant and
Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists
Millennarians: sect that expected imminent return of Christ
Unitarianism: denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Michael Servetus a major figure
Luther’s views on new sects and the peasantry: did not believe in violent protest nor
legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism
Denmark, Sweden became Lutheran
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
è John Calvin (1509-1564) Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Calvinism: predestination, the “elect,” Puritan or Protestant work ethic.
Most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Michael Servetus (1511-1553): Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake
è Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (1505-1572); presbyters governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority) in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy – heavily Catholic
Reformation in England
John Wycliffe (1329-1384): Lollards
Henry VIII: 2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; “Defender of the Faith”
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
excommunication by Pope Paul III
Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his divorce
è Church of England (Anglican Church)
Act of Supremacy (1934): King is now the head of the English Church
Execution of Thomas More
1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain certain Catholic sacraments
Thomas Cromwell: Oversaw development of king’s bureaucracy
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) tries to reimpose Catholicism
Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back to support Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – the “Virgin Queen”
è effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
Mary Stuart (“Bloody Mary”) executed
1563, Thirty-Nine Articles: defined creed of Anglican Church
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the church; Pilgrims left for
Holland and then America

THE CATHOLIC COUNTER REFORMATION (also called Catholic Reformation)
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
è Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in military fashion
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos (Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states: Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected significantly
èCouncil of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma four next 4 centuries
Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms: abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed, sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
èResults of Reformation
· The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
· Religious enthusiasm was rekindled – similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages.
· Abuses remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerably remedied by the 17th century.
· Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.
Marx and Weber theses:
Marx: capitalism (work ethic) led to Protestantism – favored by middle class
Weber: capitalism furthered Protestantism but did not cause it.

RELIGIOUS WARS: 1560-1648
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559: ends Habsburg Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars)
France kept Holy Roman Empire from gaining hegemony in Germany, inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe
Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) in shape of grill
Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of
earlier Christian Crusades)
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) reimposes Catholicism in England
Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary’s edict
Elizabeth helps Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Spanish Armada, 1588:
French civil wars (at least 9 in last half of 16th c.)
Concordat of Bologna, 1516: French monarchy now controlled Gallican Church
War of the Three Henrys: civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot faction
Catharine de’ Medici: (a Valois) opposed to Huguenots and Catholic Guise family
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre: Huguenots massacred at Catherine’s order
è Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) (1553-1610): first Bourbon king
Edict of Nantes, 1598: granted religious toleration to Huguenots
politiques: monarchs who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)

Netherlands
William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against Inquisition
United Provinces of the Netherlands,1581 (Dutch Republic)
Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium)
closing of the Scheldt River: demise of Antwerp and rise of Amsterdam

èThirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Four phases of the war:
Bohemian
Defenestration of Prague: triggers war in Bohemia
Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Danish: height of Catholic forces during the war
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634): paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Edict of Restitution (1629): emperor declared all church territories secularized since
1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Swedish: Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase
Gustavus Adolphus: pushed back Catholic forces back to Bohemia
Battle of Breitenfeld, 1630
Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
French: “International Phase”
Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Hapsburg-Valois Wars)
è Treaty of Westphalia (1648): ended Catholic Reformation in Germany
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith)
Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed
Dutch and Swiss independence
300+ German states became sovereign
Results of 30 Years’ War
Germany physically devastated (as much as 1/3 of pop. in certain areas perished)
End to wars of religion
Beginning of rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands